Archive for March, 2010

The Cranberry of commerce (Vaccinium macrorarpon) is a small evergreen plant native to eastern and northeastern North America, creeping over the ground with rooting runners about 3 ft. long and bearing upright branches about 6 in. tall on which the fruits are borne in the fall. Cranberries are produced commercially in Mass., Wisc., N.J., Wash. and Ore. with present annual estimates for the states in the above order of 573,000 barrels, 400,000 barrels, 159,000 barrels, 66,000 barrels, and 139,000 barrels, for a total U.S. crop of 1,337,000 barrels. A barrel of cranberries weighs about 100 lbs.

It has been estimated that 25% of the crop is sold as fresh fruit, and there is a tendency for this to show a slow but rather steady decline, year by year. About 25% of the crop is used in making cranberry juice cocktail and this market is steadily and almost rapidly increasing. The remaining 50% of the crop is sold as strained and whole-berry sauces, cranberry-orange relish and various other products. It is of interest to know that one of the large grower-owned Massachusetts cooperative-selling organizations handled 85% of the U.S. crop in 1964 with gross sales of $45,000,000.

This huge industry is centered on the small farms on and near Cape Cod. It is here that soil and water conditions, combined with just the right climate, are ideal for cranberry production. The home gardener does not customarily make his own cranberry bog so a quick description here of the methods used for producing cranberries commercially will be sufficient.

The cranberry planting must be in a bog or similar area where there is plenty of acid water, and arrangements must be made so that the bog can be flooded with this water at an31 time. This usually means there must be facilities for storing large amounts of water at a higher level than the bog or that there is a stream with ample water of the right kind and it can be pumped to flood the bog. Flooding is necessary for the good growth of the plants, to aid in insect control, and to aid in frost protection as well as to keep the plants from being injured by winter cold. The soil must be acid, preferably of a pH of 4.5-5.0. If one looks around carefully near a cranberry bog one will find growing naturally on cranberry soils.

Since accurate flooding of the bog is essential, it should be on flat land, with all the miscellaneous weed plants removed. It is also necessary to have facilities for draining the bog rather promptly, for if it is flooded when the plants are growing, the water should not be allowed to remain on the plants for more than 24 hours. This then necessitates a series of drains and ditches and a low spot where the water can runoff at the proper time.

In preparing the soil, the final operation is to apply 3-4 in. of sand over the entire bog area, for it is in this that the new cuttings are stuck. The sand acts as mulch and reduces water loss from the soil, aids in restraining weed growth and in the early spring and fall when danger from frost is imminent, it gives off some heat at night and so aids somewhat in frost protection. It should have a pH of 4.5.

Cuttings are taken just before growth starts in the spring. In order to do this a well-grown stand is mowed or cut with a scythe and the clippings stuck in the soil at 10-in. intervals each way, usually 2-3 per hill. Some growers merely broadcast the clippings and disc them in but this takes a great deal more cuttings than is normally necessary. Setting out cuttings is done in late April, May or June but usually May is best.

After planting, the bog is flooded for a day or two so that the water will firm the cuttings in place, then drained and of course weeded for the remainder of the summer. Normally the planting will bear its first crop the 4th year. After picking, the longest upright branches are cut back and a covering of sand about s in. deep is placed over the field to aid in the roots becoming well established. Then the bog is flooded to just above the tops of the plants for the winter. Flooding is usually done in Mass., about Dec. or whenever the sand remains frozen all day, and the bog is drained in May.

Flooding the bog is sometimes necessary in late spring after growth has started to prevent the young buds from being killed by late frosts. Usually a partial flooding only is necessary, for the water will give of a certain amount of heat at night. It is obvious to see then why quick flooding and draining are necessary. Flooding is sometimes used as a means of controlling insect pests and in the early fall is also needed to protect a crop from freezing. Picking usually starts in Mass., on Labor Day and continues until around Oct. 20.

The bog is resanded at intervals every 3-4 yrs., applying anywhere from 1-4. in. of sand depending on circumstances.

It is these two varieties that make up 93% of the acreage in Mass. ‘Me Farlin’ is the chief variety on the Pacific Coast, and in Wisc. ‘Me Farlirt’, ‘Bennett’ and ‘Searr’ are the most important. Of course, there are other varieties being introduced and tried, but these are the ones most used at present. It is also important that only one variety be planted to a bog where flooding is done all atone time, for varietal differences in growth, ripening periods and disease resistance are such that more than this is impractical.

Picking the berries is usually done with scoops by hand or sometimes by machine. The berries are collected in boxes and taken to the canneries where the chaff is blown out and the good berries sorted from the bad. At present, most of the “fresh” crop is sold and used by Christmas. The business is one that has been growing in recent years, since more and more uses for cranberries and their products are being strenuously advertised by the large growers’ cooperatives.

Cranberry growing is a commercial operation requiring specific equipment and expert knowledge and not a home garden activity. Expert advice from local authorities on pest control is advised.

Cranberry Insect Pests

Cranberry fruit worm which cats the berries and black-headed or other fire worms which kill leaves and flowers are among the most destructive. Span worms and gypsy moth which eat the leaves and girdler which destroys the stems are locally important. Blunt-nosed leafhopper, the vector of false blossom disease must be controlled. Flooding and intensive use of insecticides are the recognized control treatments.

Sweet Corn is adapted to a wide range of climatic conditions and, consequently, is grown in all sections of the U.S. It is grown for the fresh market in both the southern and northern regions, but by far the largest acreage in the North is grown for processing and freezing. This crop grows best during hot weather and is frost-tender.

Sweet Corn Varieties

Each seed company lists many varieties; therefore it is difficult to suggest varieties that are available in all sections. Most of the older varieties such as ‘Golden Bantam’ and ‘Country Gentleman’ have been replaced by hybrids such as ‘Sugar and Gold’, ‘Golden Beauty’, Earlibelle’, ‘Butter and Sugar’, ‘Gold Cup’, ‘Golden Cross Bantam’, and ‘Jubilee’, listed in order of maturity. ‘Country Gentleman’ and ‘Stowell Evergreen Hybrids’ are popular white varieties. There are many other varieties that are excellent and therefore it is recommended that seed catalogues be checked for those that are listed for a particular region.

Sweet Corn Soils and Fertilizers

Sweet Corn is grown on all types of soil. A well-drained sandy loam to a silt loam is preferred. This plant has a very deep and extensive root system. Deep and thorough soil preparation is therefore important. Three to four bu. of well-rotted manure per two ft. of row worked into the soil will improve the water-holding capacity of the soil and provide some plant food.

Sweet Corn Planting

Sweet Corn is injured by frost and the seed germinates poorly in cold wet soil. Planting should be delayed until these conditions are satisfactory. Some gardeners start the seed in paper bands or pots in the hotbed and then transplant into the garden to get corn a week or two earlier than by direct planting out of doors. Sweet Corn can be planted in hills or in drills. Hills should be spaced 18 to 24 in. apart in the row and the rows spaced at 36 in. Three plants are adequate per hill. In drills the rows are spaced at 36 in. and the plants thinned to stand6-8 in. apart. Crows and starlings may scratch out the seed just prior to its germination. The seed should be treated with a crow repellent which can be purchased at a garden center.

Sweet Corn Cultivation

Cultivation of Sweet Corn is similar to that of other garden crops, namely shallow and sufficient to control weeds. Where corn is planted in hills, black plastic 18 in. wide may be placed over the row with holes for each hill. This not only controls weeds but also tends to conserve soil moisture. Herbicides are widely used in commercial corn plantings for the control of weeds. The most satisfactory material is Atrazine, but again this is very selective and cannot be recommended for the home gardener with a few short rows of Sweet Corn.

The removal of suckers and hilling of corn plants is not necessary or recommended Harvesting

Highest quality, sweetness and tenderness of the kernel are reached when harvested in the milk stage of maturity. At this stage the kernel is soft and succulent. As the kernel content changes to a doughy consistency it loses its sweetness and increases in toughness. Flavor and succulence are quickly lost after picking if exposed to high temperatures, say 75° to 80° F. At these temperatures 30-50% of the sugar may revert to starch in 4-5 hours. At temperatures of 32°-38°F, the original quality may be retained for several days.

Sweet Corn Insects and Pests

Corn earworm, a stout striped worm, feeds in the silk and kernels near tip of ear. Although they do not survive freezing, they migrate northward and are destructive when the ears are maturing. Spraying or dusting the silk at 2 or 3 day intervals with insecticide is safe and effective. European corn borer and southern corn borer tunnel stalks and eat kernels. Spraying with insecticide when the stalks are first visible in the whorl and repeating in 7-10 days should give good control. White grubs and wireworms eat the seed and roots and soil treatment with insecticide is desirable following sod. Corn flea beetle spreads bacterial (Stewart’s) wilt disease and, following mild winters when the beetle survives, a careful spraying program with insecticide on early corn is recommended. Army worm can strip the leaves from corn in a short time. They are most destructive in late summer and a thorough treatment of corn and surrounding vegetation with insecticide is advised. Chinch bug is destructive in Midwestern corn fields but seldom needs special control in home gardens. Stalk borer bores into stalks when they are small and ruins them. Spraying is seldom practical. Japanese beetles eat the silk but can be handpicked successfully if sprays for other insect pests are not used.

Sweet Corn Diseases

Bacterial wilt is described under flea beetle. Corn smut produces large, grayish-white galls called “boils” which usually ruin the ear. The “boils” contain a mass of spores. Fungicides are impractical and cutting and burning before the spores mature is suggested for home gardens. Treated corn seed is recommended for planting using fungicide on home grown seed.

The many clematis species and hybrids are not as popular in America as they are in Great Britain and parts of Europe, yet if the plants shown at our great spring flower shows are a criterion, they certainly are not to be neglected here. About 230 species are widely distributed throughout the temperate regions of the world. One hundred species and hybrid varieties are being commercially grown in America and probably nearly twice that number are offered in Europe. One English nurseryman alone lists 130.

Clematis is native chiefly in the northern temperate regions of the world. Three of the American species are excellent garden plants and from Europe are likewise important, but in the following list it will be noted that to species and botanical varieties which are natives of Asia also make good ornamentals. It is the large-flowered hybrids which seem to capture the public fancy, and it is these which are forced for display purposes in the shows. There are of course herbaceous species as well as woody species.

Although the first man-made hybrid was probably made in 1830, it was not until about 1858 that the first large-flowered hybrid of C. lanziginosa originated (C. x jackmanii), and this started many an enthusiastic hybridizer in his efforts to obtain large-flowering varieties. Although a century has elapsed since growers first became interested in the hybrids, we do have fairly accurate records of where and when these originated. These vines are frequently not the easiest to grow properly. They need an alkaline or limestone soil, some shade, and frequently they respond well if in some way the lower parts of the stems are protected from breakage and mechanical injury. It is at this point that disease frequently enters the plants, and when injury does occur, disease enters and is often quickly followed by destruction of the plant.

The leaf stalks act as tendrils in clinging to supports. Clematis flowers have no true petals. It is the large, brilliant-colored sepals which are so interesting. Actually, some of those species and varieties with medium-sized to small flowers make the best general ornamentals. Clematis paniculata, C. montana rubens, C. texensis are all in this class, as is the variety ‘Huldine’ with 4 whitish sepals and an over-all dia. of about 4 in. A poorly grown plant of ‘Nellie Moser’ may have flowers only 4 in. across, whereas, one that is well grown would have flowers twice that size. Clematis climb by attaching their leaf stalks about the means of support. They have opposite, usually compound, leaves, with either solitary flowers or flowers in clusters.

Clematis Propagation

The behavior of seed is variable. It may be stored dry in airtight containers in a cool place for up to a year and then processed. If in doubt concerning its behavior, stratify for 3 months at 40° F., then sow. Softwood cuttings usually root well, best taken from young shoots in the greenhouse in Jan. or Feb. Sometimes the large-flowered hybrids are grafted or layered, but own rooted plan always preferable to others.

Chrysanthemum is a genus which has contributed several species to the flower garden. Hardy chrysanthemums are among the popular and important garden flowers oust of the long, colorful show they put on in summer and fall. By choosing carefully the hundreds of varieties, the gardeners have chrysanthemum blooming nearly all year round. They can be grown in containers and watered carefully. The dwarfs can be dug with a generous earth when in bud or flower and moved to a dull corner of the garden. Few have such a variety of color and form, are excellent for cutting.

Hardy chrysanthemums require a great maintenance to keep them in top form. If you are a person who has little time to work with, you should avoid having large plants. While they can be propagated, cuttings and seed, most gardeners will divide. Indeed, (or at most, biennial) division in spring may help keep them flowering well. When looking at the clump, you will notice many pale usually with a tuft of small leaves spreading out among the darker roots base of the plant. Each one of these can grow into a large flowering plant by cut off as many as you will need and the rest of the old clump. If you started with larger divisions, use a sharp knife and cut pieces with several new crowns. Small divisions or stolons make the best and they should be set out in full sun in compost or rotted manure, which supplemented with bone meal or sludge are heavy feeders and will benefit from dressings of compost during the growing season. They must be watered carefully at all stages of growth: Drying of the soil in the heat of summer will stunt growth and diminish flowering.

When the young plants have grown six or eight inches tall, pinch out the tip of each stem to induce side-branching. Pinch again after each six inches of growth until mid-July, after which the plants should be left alone so they form flower buds. This early pinching induces heavier flowering and helps to keep tall varieties more compact. The cushion mums, which mature at 12 inches or less, are self-branching and should not be pinched. Some varieties, such as the football and spider mums which develop very large flowers, should be disbudded to make them look really spectacular. All secondary flower buds are removed, allowing each stem only one bud at the top which opens into a flower that can be five to eight inches across. Such varieties usually bloom too late to mature before frost and the flowers can’t take heavy rains, so they are best left to florists and greenhouses. While some-times advertised as being suitable for the open garden, they are really not.

Almost everyone knows of or owns chrysanthemum plants which seem to survive and bloom year after year with little or no winter protection. Even so, the term “hardy chrysanthemum” can be misleading because too often a newly bought variety which was planted in spring and bloomed in fall dies in the winter. This is often caused by poor drainage; while mums require abundant moisture during the growing season; their soil must never be soggy in winter. Try not to plant them in heavy clays if you wish to winter them in the garden. To prevent alternate freezing and thawing, cover the plants with airy mulch such as straw, evergreen boughs or an inverted basket in winter. To be sure that choice variety survives, dig them with earth balls after frost has killed the tops and store them under light mulch in a cold frame for the winter. In spring, plant several of the stolons and compost the old plants. Treated this way, any hardy mum will grow and bloom well each season.

There are several recognized flower types of hardy chrysanthemums of which the button, pompon, decorative, and single-flowered types are most suitable for the open border. There are many named varieties to choose from in each class, so check the catalogs for those which appeal to you most. The cushion or dwarf types might be the best for busy gardeners because they do not need pinching.

As we know, the Chestnut in the United States is a member of the Castanets genus, which is a small group of nut-producing timber trees. C. dentata, the American chestnut, was probably the most valuable timber tree in this country. Certainly it was the dominant tree in the vast hardwood forests. Unfortunately an Asiatic fungus, Endothia parasitica, which gained entrance to N.Y. about 1900, has all but exterminated the American chestnut in this country. Common in the hardwood forests of the eastern half of the United States, only an occasional sucker from the live root system isnow seen from Me. to Mich. and south to the Gulf of Mexico.

Sometimes the suckers become large enough to bear nuts arousing hope that eventually the American Chestnut may acquire resistance to the blight. The U.S. Forest Service, the state forestry departments and others, notably Dr. Richard A. Jaynes, have been crossing American chestnut with the Japanese species, Castaneacrenata and the Chinese species, both of which have resistance to Endothia. Some progress is being made, but hope of producing a timber-type hybrid with sufficient resistance to use in reforesting has not yet been realized.

Although a number of named varieties are available from nurseries, notably ‘Abundance’, ‘Carr’ and ‘Hobson’, because of incompatibility between seedling stock and the scion, many persons have had poor results with them. They are now turning to named selections of the Chinese chestnut which have been made by the USDA. Grafted trees come into bearing in 5 or 6 years. Seedlings often do not bear until 15or more years old. Chinese chestnuts have nuts as sweet as the American and often of larger size. Recommended are ‘Nanking’, ‘ Meiling’ and ‘Ruling’. All 3 produce large nuts of excellent quality. Although the Chinese chestnut is questionably hardy in Zone 3, it does extremely well over most of the country.

Very likely the resistance of both the Chinese chestnut and the Japanese Castanea crenata resulted from living with the disease for several hundred years. On that basis we may hope that eventually the American Chestnut will acquire a degree of resistance some day.

The Japanese Chestnut, C. crenata, is a spreading short-trunked tree that usually re-mains under 30 feet in height. Leaves are oblong, 4 to 7 in. in length with the margin serrated. The burr is about 2 in. in dia. and normally has 2 nuts, which lack the quality of the nuts of either the American or Chinese chestnut. It thrives in much of the country from Zone 4 south.

The Chinese chestnut, C. mollissima, may reach 50 ft. in height. The trunk, however, is short and the crown is broad. The elliptic leaves are coarsely toothed with a white pubescence along the veins. Native to China and Korea, the nuts, 2 normally to a burr, are large and sweet. Hardy from Zone 4 south, several producing orchards in the Midwest and the Middle Atlantic States yield plentiful crops of high quality nuts.

The Spanish chestnut, C. sativa, is a tall tree native to Europe, western Asia and North Africa. It has been in cultivation in Europe for many years. In this country, it is less hardy than either Asiatic species. The nuts are large and well filled when properly grown, but they lack the pleasant flavor of either American Chestnut or the Asiatic species. In recent years chestnut blight has reached Europe and is decimating the orchards of Spanish Chestnut.

The Chinquapin, C. panzila, is a shrubby American tree. Native from N.J. to Fla. and west to Tex. and Okla., its burrs are a little over an inch in dia. and normally contain a single nut. Leaves 3 to 7 in. long are coarsely toothed and have a white felt on the underside.

Interest in the chestnut for landscape use has in recent years been largely concentrated on the Chinese chestnut. It is an attractive spreading tree, both ornamental and equally serviceable as a shade tree. Neither the Asiatic nor the American chestnut is exacting in its soil requirement, but no Chestnut will thrive in soil where drainage is poor. A rocky well-drained hillside with a sandy loam is ideal for chestnuts.

The most serious insect pest is a tiny snout beetle which lays its eggs on the growing burrs in July. The grubs hatch and bore into the enlarging nuts within the burr where they feed on the kernel. These chestnut weevils can be controlled with any one of several pesticides, but it is advisable to inquire of the Extension Service of the State University as to timing and the specific chemical to use. Since this pest pupates in the soil under the tree, control may be had by pesticide treatment of the soil. Other insects are not usually troublesome.

The most serious disease of the Chestnut is the blight, Endothia parasitica, for which there is now no known control. It does not affect the roots which sucker freely. Such suckers sometimes live long enough to produce a few nuts. The U.S. Forest Service has acquired detailed information on several hundred American chestnut trees that have not been killed by Endothia. Records of persisting suckers are also in their hands. It is hoped that a disease-resistant American chestnut may be found to be reproduced vegetatively or to be crossed with a Chinese or Japanese Chestnut, thereby producing a resistant hybrid.

Many home gardeners will find, after due consideration, that they do not wish to grow cherries, for 2 reasons. Birds can, and frequently do, eat a major part of the crop. Also, cherries have a tendency to split if periods of heavy rains coincide with ripening. It’s practically impossible for the gardener to control either one of these hazards. Birds like blueberries, but these can be covered with netting. However, covering entire trees with netting just is not practical.

Cherries are of 3 general types—sour cherries(varieties of Prunus. cerasus) which are mostly self-fertile; Sweet Cherries (varieties of P. avium) which are not self-fertile, but need other varieties for cross-pollination; and the Duke cherries, supposed to be crosses between the sour and the sweet, which also need other cherries for cross-pollination. Since the home gardener frequently considers planting the Sweet Cherry, he must also surmount the hurdle of needing several trees of different varieties to insure having a crop. Often this is a greater undertaking than the cherries are worth.

The main sweet cherry-growing areas of the U.S. are the Pacific Coast states, chiefly Calif., Ore. and Wash., western N.Y. and western Mich. The chief sour cherry-growing areas are northern Ohio, western N.Y. and the Hudson Valley, western Mich., Wise. and Colo.

All cherries bloom early in the spring, before the leaves appear, and hence the flowers are susceptible to killing by late frosts. The Sweet Cherry is about as hardy as the Peach; the Sour Cherry is slightly more hardy. All cherries are susceptible to various virus diseases, and one should be certain that, in purchasing trees, virus-free plants are purchased, the under stock as well as the tops.

Propagation is by budding on either P. avium, the Mazzard Cherry, or P. mahaleb, the Mahaleb Cherry. The latter is cheap and easy to work, but the Mazzard Cherry is the superior under stock, and trees on this stock should be obtained if possible, for they make much better trees.

Sweet cherries should be planted 30 ft. apart, sour cherries about 25 ft. apart and ‘Morello’ cherries about 18 ft. apart.

As for pruning, sweet cherries are pruned the least. These trees usually grow taller than those of the sour cherries and they just do not seem to demand the careful pruning required by many other kinds of fruit trees. Little pruning is necessary on sour cherries, especially if crossed branches and weak branches are removed as they appear.

Cherry Cross-Pollination

One should be as careful with cherries as with plums in the cross-pollination requirements. All sweet cherries require cross-pollination and the chances are that it is these which would be selected for the home garden. Varieties which have proved good pollinizers for other sweet cherry varieties are ‘Black Tatarian’, ‘Grant’, ‘Seneca’ and ‘Lyons’. It should be remembered, too, that varieties like ‘Bing’, ‘Lambert’, ‘Napoleon’ and ‘Emperor Francis’ are all inter-sterile, one with the other.

The Duke cherries. ‘Reine Hortense’ and ‘Royal Duke’, are self-sterile and either sour or sweet cherries can be used as pollinizers for these. The sour cherries are mostly self-fertile.

Cherry Fertilizers

Fertilizers might be applied in the early spring at about the time the buds burst. A 3-4-year-old tree in a cultivated orchard might be given. If it is over two years old it might be given 5 lbs. Trees growing in sod, which receive more and sweeter cherries because they grow into larger trees, would also receive heavier applications, might be used. Tent caterpillars infest cherry in the spring, and other caterpillars are occasionally troublesome.

Cherry Diseases

Brown rot causes lesion on twigs and rot on ripening fruit. Bacterial leaf spot in which the spots often drop out, causing a shot-hole effect. Attacks both sweet and sour cherries and defoliates the trees. Spraying with fungicide when petals fall and after harvest is helpful. A fungus leaf spot or yellow leaf is controlled by fungicide in early and late applications. Black knot develops on sour cherries. Virus diseases discourage the growing of cherries in some areas. Destroying infected trees and controlling insects are the only remedies.

Celery and closely related Celeriac both belong to the genus Apium of the Carrot or Umbelliferae Family which includes some 20 species of herbs that are best adapted to the northern temperate zone.

Celery is one of the more difficult crops to grow in the home garden because it requires more detailed care than most other crops. It is a cool weather plant and, therefore, in the south it is grown as a winter and spring crop and farther north as a summer and fall crop.

The more important commercial production areas are located in Calif., Fla., and Ariz. in the south and N.Y., N.J., Mich., Ohio, Pa., and Wash. in the north.

Celery Varieties

Green varieties have increased in importance and the so-called yellow or self-blanching types have decreased in use during the past 20 years. The most important green varieties are ‘Utah’, of which there are number of strains, ‘Giant Pascal’, ‘Summer Pascal’ and ‘Fordhook’. Varieties in the self-blanching category are ‘Golden Self Blanching’, ‘Wonderful’ or ‘Golden Plume’, ‘Michigan’ and ‘Detroit Golden’.

Celery Soils and Fertilizers

No garden crop grown is such a rich feeder as Celery. The soil must have depth, mellowness, and an abundant supply of moisture. A well-drained muck or peat soil is ideal but most home gardeners will find a sandy loam soil that is well supplied with organic matter to be very satisfactory. A heavy clay soil should be avoided. The soil pH should range between 5.8 and 6.7.

For sandy loam soils, bushels of animal manure or well-decomposed compost should be thoroughly plowed or spaded into the soil to a depth of 7-8 in. Celery is a heavy feeder and a poor forager and, therefore, in addition to the manure or compost it is advisable to broadcast, at the time of plowing or spading.

Raising Celery Plants from Seed

Most home gardeners will find it more desirable to buy plants from a dealer or commercial grower. Celery seed is small, germinates slowly and must have careful attention as to temperature and soil moisture during the germination period.

The seed should be planted in a very light sandy soil, preferably in drills 11-12 in. apart. After the seed is covered a piece of burlap or even a newspaper is placed over the flat or container to help maintain uniform moisture of the soil during the germination period. Temperatures of 70-75°F. are optimum.

The young seedlings are very delicate and spindly until they reach a height of I-1-2 in. When the second true leaves appear the plants should be transplanted into a good potting soil 11-12 in. apart. Maintaining a uniform moisture and temperature is very important introducing a good stocky plant. Temperature exposure of 50° F. or below, for 7 days or more, will result in premature seed-stalk development. Some 8-9 weeks are necessary before plants are ready for out-of-door planting.

Celery Planting and Care

The garden soil should be fine, smooth, moist and fairly firm and the plants stocky, 4-5in. tall with plenty of roots. Out-of-door planting should be delayed until danger of frost is past. Planting distance, 5-6 in. in the row and 24-30 in. between rows. In planting set the plants level with the crown of the plant or not deeper than they were in the flat or seedbed. The young plants should be watered daily until they are well established.

Shallow cultivation should start as soon as possible after planting in order to control weeds and to maintain a thin, loose surface of the soil.

Celery will respond to several applications of nitrate of soda during the growing season. Each application of 3-4 lbs. per too ft. of row should be placed several inches from the plants on both sides and then lightly worked into the top surface of the soil. Watering will help to make the fertilizer available to the plants.

Celery Blanching and Harvesting

Blanching means the loss of green color and since it is known that the green color of plants contains higher vitamin A content than non-white parts the demands for blanched celery has materially decreased.

Blanching of the self-blanching or early types is usually done by the use of wide rolls of heavy building paper boards which are placed on either side of the row of Celery and then held together by wire hooks.

For the late varieties the most satisfactory method of blanching is to gradually pull soil around the plant until only the top of the leaves show above the mound. No soil must be allowed to fall into the heart of the plant. This type of blanching should not be done until late in the fall or when the plants are fully grown. Placing hay or straw over the hilled row will mean that the plants can be kept until early winter.

There is no definite stage of maturity at which Celery must be harvested. Its best quality is attained when the plants have reached full size. In harvesting the plants are cut off below the surface of the soil with a large knife. Pull off the outside stalks and use them for celery soup or flavoring.

Celery Storage

The fall crop of Celery may be stored for periods of 4-8 weeks. Perhaps the most practical method for the home gardener is in using a trench in the garden area. Three to 4 rows of Celery are packed tight and upright in the trench. Boards are set against the side and over the top of the trench. Hay or straw is then placed over the boards and as colder weather sets in a layer of soil is placed over the hay. Cold frames may also be used to store Celery for short periods.

Celery Diseases and Insects

Celery is subject to a number of diseases and insects, but only a few are generally of importance. Early and late blight are carried over from year to year in the seed and on old Celery plant refuse. In the home garden the most satisfactory control is the use of a copper-lime dust or Bordeaux mixture (4 oz. copper sulphate, 4 oz. hydrated lime to 3 gals. of water) as a spray applied at weekly intervals.

Bacterial leaf spot, root rot and yellows are other diseases which may be important. Insects that may be important are the carrot rust fly and the tarnished plant bug. The latter insect may be controlled with dimethoate. Be sure to read the label.

Two physiological disorders are frequently important, namely, black heart and cracked stem. Black heart first shows as a tip burn on young leaves and then spreads to the heart tissue of the plant which in severe cases is killed and turns black. This condition probably is due to deficiency of calcium and an imbalance of other nutrient elements in the soil. Cracked stem results in brownish cracks and lesions on the inner and outer surface of the leaf petiole. This condition can be controlled by adding small amounts of borax, to the fertilizer used prior to planting or in applying borax as a solution near the base of the plant.

The carrot is one of our most common and widely grown vegetables. It grows best at mean temperatures between 600-700° F. Prolonged higher temperatures tend to produce shorter, non-blunt roots, while temperatures below 50° F. tend to make roots longer, more slender and paler in color.

California, Texas, Arizona, and New Mexico are the important commercial production areas for the winter and spring crop. Most of the northern states have large acreages for summer and fall harvest, used fresh and for processing and freezing.

Carrot Varieties

Seedsmen list a large number of varieties but only a few of these listed sorts are important. Those having long, cylindrical and smooth shape include ‘Imperator’, ‘Gold Pak’, and ‘Nantes Half Long’. Other standard varieties include ‘Red Cored Chantenay’ and ‘Danvers Half Long’.

Carrot Soils

Carrots, like beets, grow best in a deep, loose sandy loam, loam or muck soil that is high infertility and water-holding capacity. Soil preparation and fertilizer recommendations outlined for beets apply equally well for carrots. Note should be made to the effect that strawy manure or raw compost should not be used because its use just prior to planting will tend to produce knobby, misshapen roots with many fibrous side rootlets.

Carrot Planting and Care

Carrot seed is slow to germinate and, there-fore, a few quick germinating radish seeds are frequently scattered in the drill to mark the rows and thus permit earlier cultivation. Sow the seed in drills in. in depth at the rate of oz. per too ft. of row. As soon as the plants reach a height of 2-3 in., thin to a spacing of 11-12 in. Space the rows 12-15 in. apart. The seed may be planted as soon as the ground can be prepared, and for continuous supply make a planting every 3 weeks until Aug. 1. This applies to the northern states. Shallow cultivation is important starting as soon as possible after planting. Commercial growers use a petroleum product Stoddard Solvent to control weeds in carrots. The use of herbicides and chemicals for weed control is, however, not recommended in the small home garden.

Carrots are most tender and sweet if harvested before the roots reach their mature size or for the long types and the shorter chantenay types. Carrots may be harvested in the late fall and stored in the same manner as recommended for beets.

Carrot Insects and Diseases

The carrot caterpillar is green banded with black and yellow markings and up to 2 in. long.

It seldom does much damage. The carrot rust fly is becoming a serious problem in some areas. The yellowish-white, legless and up to in. long larvae tunnels into the outer fleshy root. Control involves the use of a diazinon dust applied at the rate of 2 lbs. per 2 sq. ft. of soil surface. Apply to the soil before planting and then work it thoroughly into the upper 6 in. Leaf blight and carrot yellows are diseases of lesser importance that can cause some damage. Spray with Maneb. Carrot yellows, a virus, is spread by the 6-spotted leaf hopper. To control the hopper use a 4% malathion dust. Three to four applications at 7-10-day intervals starting as soon as the first leaf hoppers appear.

Cactus plants, which include the fascinating bizarre cacti, are to be considered as the most specialized of all plant groups. Since they live chiefly in areas typically hot and dry they assume fantastic forms which enable them to survive in such regions of adverse conditions. The grotesque growths tend to conserve water and reduce transpiration. In the case of the cacti, leaves are dispensed with almost entirely and the stems take over the functions which the leaves on non-succulent plants perform. In the mimicry plants (stemless mesembryanthemums) the leaves have entirely lost their semblance and appear as chubby, squat conical-to-spherical plant-bodies.

The root systems of succulent plants are hardly extensive or penetrate the soil very deeply. Usually they lie just below the soil surface which enables them to make quick use of any moisture that may come their way. Thus the plants are able to store water in special tissues and rely on it when water is scarce. For this reason, they are known as “succulents” which literally means “juicy plants.”

Since succulents have learned to adapt them-selves so nicely to adverse conditions we can readily see why they make such good houseplants. Where other plants fail in the hot dry atmosphere of our living rooms, the succulents usually succeed and impart a bit of greenery the year round. People often kill succulents by kindness when they pamper them too much. However, it is wrong to believe that succulents need no attention whatsoever.

Succulents are numbered in at least 20 different plant families. There are hundreds to choose from in all imaginable shapes and forms. If only a windowsill is available it can be utilized and made attractive with these plants. It is to be remembered that succulents require lots of light; if grown in the absence of it, the plants will exhibit scrawny etiolated growth which will be more readily subject to insect attacks and plant diseases. Sun porches afford more room where more elaborate set-ups or staging can be maintained. However, if one can afford a greenhouse, no matter how small, succulents can be grown to perfection without too much fuss.

A fact to remember is to choose the container best suited for use in the home, if that is the only available location. Succulents look very attractive in glazed pottery, but care in watering must be exercised since such containers do not dry out as fast as ordinary flower pots. Small pots can be set in a large tray or metal box filled with sand, gravel or sphagnum moss, and kept moist. Frequent repotting is not necessary.

Where space is at a premium more satisfaction will be derived if the grower concentrates on a few individual groups than on a general collection.

Cactus Propagation

Succulents usually can be propagated from seed, offsets and cuttings, and by grafting. It is true that growing them from seed will require patience, especially in the case of slow-growing cacti, but on the whole many succulents will produce good growth quickly. All you need is a flower pot or seed flat (a cigar box will do), a piece of glass for cover, good porous soil, and a package of fresh seed. Seeds may be sown anytime in the year if high temperatures can be maintained, as in greenhouses, but perhaps in the average home seed-sowing should be carried on in spring and summer. A uniform temperature of 70° F. should be provided and the seed pans placed in a window with a southern exposure, where light is always available. The soil in the seed containers must never be allowed to dry out, and seed must not be planted deep—just barely covered with sand or fine gravel. Water can be applied with a fine syringe or in the case of pots, the pots watered from below by placing them in a pan of water. Generally a glass cover is placed over the box or pot to aid in conserving moisture and heat, but the glass should be painted to shade the seedlings as they appear and gradually removed so that seedlings will get accustomed to the light. Supply ventilation to the seedlings by raising the glass cover occasionally so that damping-off does not occur. Seedlings need not be transplanted until they have become large enough or when they begin to crowd each other.

Most succulents can be multiplied by off-shoots which usually appear at the base of the mother plant or anywhere along the stems. Cuttings can be made almost anywhere—from tips, lateral branches, from leaves, and in many cases just tiny fragments of portions of stems such as ribs and tubercles of cacti. Cuttings generally root easily and produce a mature plant more quickly than seedlings. When making cuttings use a clean sharp knife or razor blade. Heal the cutting in a dry, shaded place until a skin or callus is formed; the time will vary with the species from one week to a month or more, depending on the size of the cut. The wider the cut the longer it will require to heal over. Cuttings can be rooted in a mixture of sand and soil but more preferably in pure sand or vermiculite, and as soon as roots form the rooted plants can be planted in the regular way. As a precaution, do not keep the rooting medium too wet from the beginning as rot may set in and spoil your effort. In that case, the cutting will have to be cut back to healthy tissue and calloused over.

Cacti and spurges are usually grafted in order to speed maturity of these plants. There are other reasons, too, such as to save a plant when only a small piece is available which would not easily make a cutting, or to develop more decorative and bushy plants, and to raise varieties that are considered difficult to grow on their own root. Still another reason is to preserve abnormal forms such as crests and monstrosities which are greatly sought by connoisseurs.

Although it is possible to graft other succulents besides the cacti, like spurges and stapeliads, there is really no point gained. Before attempting grafting remember that only related plants can be grafted. A Spurge cannot be grafted onto a Cactus or vice-versa—only species within their respective families.

There are 3 kinds of grafts commonly employed—the cleft, the flat and the side. All thin-stemmed plants are suitable for cleft-grafting while the thick and globose types require a flat graft. The side-graft is usually employed on thin-stemmed plants although it can be used with success on the chubby kinds too. In cleft-grafting the stock (the rooted plant upon which the scion will be placed) is cut back to a desired height, depending on what effect is desired for the plant later on. The Christmas Cactus, which bears pendent stems, naturally would look more effective grafted on a stock at least 6-12 in. tall. A slit is made at the top of the stock about an inch deep. The stem of the scion is then cut on 2 sides to form a wedge and inserted into the split of the stock. Firm the graft into the desired position and run a cactus spine or two through the united portions; then wrap some cord or raffia around the graft, just taut enough to hold the scion in place but not so tight as to cut into the stock.

In the flat graft, both scion and stock should be of approximately the same width at the intended union. After selecting the 2 plants, make a smooth transverse cut on each specimen and then place the scion on the severed stock, pressing the 2 flat surfaces firmly together. The scion can be held in place with 2 large-sized bands or string run over the top of the scion and underneath the flower pot, or by the use of flexible wire bent in “U” shape.

The side graft requires no special operation beyond slicing one side of both scion and stock and holding the 2 joints in place. When grafting operations are completed, set the plants in a warm shaded place so that the cut surfaces will not dry out too rapidly, preventing perfect unions. Inspect all grafts regularly each day to note whether union has formed properly. After grafted plants have become established only normal care is necessary.

Cactus Varieties

The most popular members of the Cactus Family are the mammillarias, better known as “pincushion” or “nipple” cacti. They are mostly small globular to cylindrical plant-bodies covered with nipple like tubercles with clusters of spines on their tips where the areoles appear. The small bell-shaped flowers appear as a crown on top of the plant and in some species a circle of colorful scarlet-to-crimson fruits will develop simultaneously.

There are over 300 different kinds described and every one is a gem, but the most popular are those which bear colorful descriptive names such as the Old Lady, Powder Puff, Bird Nest, Feather Ball, Ladyfingers, Thimble, Snowball, Fishhook and Golden Stars. They can be readily supplied by Calif. nurserymen who grow them by the thousands.

Cabbage is by far the most important member of the genus Brassica that is grown as a vegetable. It has been known from earliest antiquity and was probably in general use as early as 2000 to 2500 B.C. Several types were cultivated at the time of Pliny. At the present time Cabbage is found wild on the sea coasts of western and southern Europe.

Cabbage thrives best in a relatively cool, moist climate. In the southern region it is grown largely during the winter and early spring, while in the northern states it is grown as either a late spring or fall crop.

Cabbage Varieties

There are literally hundreds of varieties of Cabbage which vary in size, shape, maturity, color and resistance to various diseases. Some are used for boiling, coleslaw and salads while others, the larger-headed sorts, are grown basically for sauerkraut and pickling. It is suggested that the home gardener check several good seed catalogues and then select the variety that best meets his needs.

Good (yellows resistant) green and early varieties are: ‘Jersey Wakefield’ (a conical head), ‘Golden Acre’, ‘Stonehead’, and ‘Copenhagen’. Green and late: Danish Ballhead types such as ‘Penn State Ballhead’, or ‘Wisconsin Hollander’. Red types are ‘Red Acre’, or ‘Red Danish’ and Savoy types, and ‘Chieftain’.

Cabbage Soils and Fertilizers

Most garden soils will produce a good crop of Cabbage if the soil is properly prepared and fertilized. Generally early Cabbage is grown on the lighter sandy-loam soils, while late Cabbage is grown on heavier soils that are more retentive of moisture. Perhaps more important than soil texture, is its supply of moisture and its fertility.

Cabbage is a heavy feeder, especially of nitrogen and potash. If animal manure is available, liberal applications prior to plowing or spading will be beneficial. In addition to manure, 30-40 lbs. of a 5-8-7 or similar ratio of a commercial fertilizer should be applied prior to planting, followed by several side dressings of nitrate of soda, it lbs. per too ft. of row, during the first 5 weeks after the plants have been set into the garden.

Growing Cabbage Plants

For early Cabbage sow the seed in good potting soil in flats or other suitable containers a month or 6 weeks earlier than the plants are to be set out. Sow the seed in drills in. deep and 2 in. apart. When the seedlings reach a size of 2-3 in. in height, transplant into boxes with spacing of 1-11 in. Maintain uniform soil moisture and a temperature of 60 to 70° F. until a week or two before field planting when the temperature should be reduced to 50-55°F. The method of raising plants for the late crop is exactly the same except that the flats or boxes are kept out-of-doors rather than under glass in the home or in hotbeds.

Cabbage Planting

Cabbage plants that are well hardened can beset out in the garden even though the temperature may drop down below freezing for several days. Spacing will depend largely on the variety. ‘Jersey Wakefield’, ‘Golden Acre’, and ‘Copenhagen’ may be set 15 in. in the row, while the larger-headed Ballhead types should be given a hit more space, say 15-18 in. apart.

Cabbage Cultivation

Cabbage roots are wide spread and relatively shallow. Sufficient cultivation should be given to keep down the weeds and to maintain shallow soil mulch when the plants are small. Hand hoeing or hand weeding may be necessary after the plants reach full size if weeds are a problem.

Cabbage Harvesting

The heads are usable anytime after they have properly formed. If left too long after maturity the heads will split. In cutting use a large knife and cut just above the large outer leaves.

Cabbage Storage

Late Cabbage may be stored in outdoor pits for periods of 4-8 weeks. The plants are pulled, roots and all, and placed in the pit, heads down, and then covered with hay or straw and a layer of soil.

Cabbage Insect Pests

Several greenish leaf-eating caterpillars attack Cabbage and related plants. They include the cabbage worm and cabbage looper. To control, use Bacillus thuringensis regularly at 7-10 day intervals. Begin in May when first butterflies are seen after planting in the South, or use Sevin for good results. After the edible part of plant appears (heads) use Sevin, a 4% malathiondust 1 oz. per 50 ft. of row.

Cabbage aphid may be a serious pest. These soft-bodied, green or black insects may be controlled with a malathion dust or anicotine dust.

Root maggots can be serious for all crops in the Mustard Family. Control of the maggot is in applying each cupful to each plant when set out in the garden of a diazinon suspension in the transplant water, using 5 oz. 50% wettable powder in suspension.

Black and red Harlequin bugs occur in the southern states. Adults and nymphs suck the plant sap and are very hard to kill. Hand pick or, if serious, use Carbaryl (Sevin) dust.

Cabbage Diseases

Black rot caused by a bacterium that lives over in the seed produces a black ring in the stem and veins of the leaves. Blackleg is a disease caused by a fungus parasite that invades the seed and lives over in the soil. Its worst damage is to young plants in the seed bed. Both of these diseases may be kept under control by treating the seed with hot water (Cabbage for 25 min. other crucifers for 18 min. at 1220 F.), by using sterilized soil in the seed bed and by crop rotation in the garden.

Cabbage yellows caused by a fungus which shows up by the lifeless yellowish-green color of the plants, 2-4 weeks after transplanting, followed by a stunted, malformed growth. This disease is soil-borne and the only control lies in crop rotation and in using yellow-resistant varieties.

Club root is produced by an invasion of a slime mold on the roots. The roots of affected plants show a thickened, malformed appearance. This is a soil parasite which thrives in an acid soil. Soil pH should test 6.8-7 and transplants should come from soil that has been treated with Vapam, 1 pint per 50 sq. ft., or apply Terrachlor 75% wettable powder, 5 lbs. per 100 gal. of water, using pint of this per plant.

Cabbage and the other crucifers are subject to other insects and diseases which generally are of minor importance. In addition certain physiological disorders are common, whiptail in Cauliflower and tip burns of Cabbage, in both cases indicated by poor and malformed leaf blades. They are caused by an acid soil and an unbalanced ratio of potash to phosphorus. Browning or brown rot is caused by a deficiency of boron. This is most prominent in Cauliflower. The symptoms are a change in color of the foliage, thickening and brittleness of the leaves and a browning of the “curd” in the case of Cauliflower. Control is in applying 8 oz. per 1000 sq. ft. of borax mixed in the commercial fertilizer or as a foliar spray.

Two more or less distinct species are grown, Pe-tsai (Brassica pekinensis)and Pak-Choi (B. chinensis). The Pe-tsairesembles Cos Lettuce but produces a much larger head which is elongated and compact. The Pak-Choi type resembles Swiss Chard with long, dark green leaves. This kind does not form a solid head.