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Fresh ingredients are essential to a healthy, balanced diet, and we are now encouraged to eat at least five portions of fresh fruit and vegetables a day. Vitamin C is found almost exclusively in fruit and vegetables and because it cannot be stored by the body, levels need to be topped up continually.

Fruit and vegetables are also extremely rich in fiber, particularly when eaten with the skin in tact. High-protein foods such as meat, game, poultry and eggs contain many other essential nutrients. Use frozen produce when fresh is not available; it is perfectly acceptable from a nutritional point of view.

Fresh ingredients

Fresh Fruit

Fruits are very versatile and can be enjoyed raw or cooked, on their own or as part of a recipe. They are also good sources of vitamins and minerals, particularly vitamin C. A piece of fresh fruit makes a quick and easy, nutritious snack at any time of the day. Try topping whole wheat breakfast cereals with some fruit such as raspberries for a tasty and nutritious start to the day.

Fresh Vegetables

Vegetables are nutritious and are valuable sources of vitamins and minerals, some being especially rich in vitamins A, C and E. Vegetables also contain some dietary fiber and those that are particularly good sources include broccoli, brussel sprouts, cabbage, carrots, fennel, okra, parsnips, spinach, spring greens (collard) and sweet corn. Vegetables are also very versatile and many can be eaten either raw or cooked. Add vegetables to dishes such as soups, stews, casseroles, stir-fries and salads, or simply serve them on their own, raw or lightly cooked and tossed in a little lemon juice.

Potatoes

Potatoes are one of the most commonly eaten vegetables in the world and are valuable in terms of nutrition. They are high in carbohydrate, low in fat and contain some Vitamin C and dietary fiber. Wash old and new potatoes thoroughly and cook them with their skins on, for example baked, boiled and roasted. The flavor will be just as delicious and you will be getting extra fiber.

Potatoes are very versatile and are used in many dishes. Mashed potatoes (with their skins left on, of course) make an ideal topping for pies and bakes. For roast potatoes use a minimum amount of oil, and if you like to make chips, leave the skins on and cut the chips thickly using a knife. With baked and mashed potatoes avoid adding high fat butter, soured cream or cheese and instead use skimmed milk, reduced fat hard cheese and herbs to add flavor.

Fresh Beans and Other Pulses

There are many varieties of fresh beans and pulses available, either fresh or canned, including peas, broad (lava)beans and runner beans, and more unusual ones such as fresh flageolet beans, black-eyed (peas) beans and butter (wax) beans. Fresh corn on the cob and sweet corn are also popular.

All are good sources of dietary fiber and contain other nutrients including vitamins and minerals. Beans and pulses are very versatile and can be used in many dishes including hot and cold salads, stir-fries, casseroles, pasta sauces, soups and curries. Some varieties, such as sugar-snap peas and mangetouts (snow peas) can be eaten either raw or lightly cooked.

Eggs

Virtually a complete food and extremely versatile, eggs provide protein, iron, zinc and vitamins A, B and E.

Fish

Increasingly research points to the great benefits gained from a diet high in fish. All fish is rich in protein, B vitamins and minerals; white fish is very low in fat. Oily fish, such as sardines, mackerel, herring, tuna, trout and salmon, also provide vitamins A and D and Omega 3 fatty acids, which are believed to be beneficial in helping to prevent coronary heart disease.

Poultry

A good source of quality protein, B vitamins and some iron, poultry is also low in fat, particularly if the skin is removed.

Meat and Game

Although the general health advice is to moderate your intake of red meat, thus reducing the amount of saturated fat in your diet, red meat is still the best source of readily absorbed iron, zinc and B vitamins. Meat today is much leaner than it used to be, and it fits the profile for a healthy diet if it is cooked with low-fat cooking methods.

Storing

Because nutrients in fresh foods, especially valuable vitamins, deteriorate as food ages it is important to always buy the freshest and best quality available. Storing the food correctly at home will also ensure that the minimum of nutrients are lost before they are eaten. Whilst some fruit and vegetables can be kept at room temperature, they will not last for long in a hot kitchen and should be stored in a cooler environment. Quickly perishable foods such as meat, poultry, fish and dairy products should be stored in a refrigerator.
A freezer is useful for keeping many fresh foods longer term. You can buy them when they are plentiful and cheap for the freezer, using them when they become out of season or more expensive in the shops. Follow the freezer manufacturer’s instructions for storing and blanch fruit and vegetables as required.

Storing Fresh Fruits

Those fruits that can be kept at room temperature while still unripe include apricots, kiwi fruits, mangoes, nectarines, papayas, peaches, pears, pineapples and plums. Once ripe, refrigerate and eat within 2-3 days.

Fruits that can be stored at cool room temperature include apples (although they will be crisper if refrigerated), bananas, dates, grapefruit and oranges. Apples can be kept at room temperature for a few days, dates for several weeks, and grapefruit and oranges for up to a week. Unless you intend to eat them on the day of purchase, refrigerate fully ripe and perishable fresh fruits. These include berries, cherries, figs, grapes, lemons, limes, melons, pomegranates and tangerines. They can be kept refrigerated for 2-3 days.

Storing Fresh Vegetables

Like fruits, there are some vegetables that can be stored at room temperature. A dark, cool place (about 10°C/50°F) with good ventilation is ideal, however. Suitable vegetables are garlic, onions, potatoes and sweet potatoes, swede and pumpkin can be kept for about 2 months. Store tomatoes at room temperature until they are ripe, after that, refrigerate.
Perishable vegetables should be refrigerated. Some, such as peas or sweet corn, should be used quickly, while others like carrots or cabbage, can be kept for a longer period. In most cases, do not wash the vegetable until just before using. Celery, frisee, escarole, spring greens (collard), herbs, lettuce, spinach and watercress should be washed before storage.

Cold Storage

All foods kept in the refrigerator or freezer should be well wrapped or stored in sealed containers. This preserves flavor and moisture, and prevents the flavors and odors of other, stronger foods being transferred. It is essential to keep raw meat and poultry well wrapped as their drippings can transfer bacteria to other foods.

Perishable fresh foods, such as meats, poultry, fish and seafood, eggs, cheese and other dairy products, and many fruits and vegetables must be kept refrigerated at a temperature ofI-5°C/35-40°F. For longer storage, many can also be frozen at 18°C/0°F or lower. Cooked leftovers must also be refrigerated or frozen. Use a special thermometer to check temperatures; integral thermostats often give false readings over time. If temperatures are too high, food will spoil rapidly

To be able to cook efficiently, and with pleasure, you need good equipment in your kitchen. That is not to say that you should invest in an extensive and expensive collection of pots, pans, tools and gadgets, but a basic range is essential.

Buy the best equipment you can afford, adding more as your budget allows. Well made equipment lasts and is a sound investment; inexpensive pans and tins are likely to dent, break or develop ‘hot spots’ where food will stick and burn so will need replacing. Flimsy tools will make food preparation more time consuming and frustrating.

The following lists the basic essentials for a well-run kitchen. Depending on your preferences, you will no doubt wish to add other utensils to this list. You may also wish to add an electric mixer, a blender and/or a food processor to speed up various processes, but hand tools all do a fine job.

Essential utensils

Baking sheet: For cookies, biscuits and meringues. Shiny, side less one slightly brown.

Cake, bun and loaf tins (pans): To ensure even heat distribution, shiny metal (aluminium, tin or stainless steel) is the best material. Try to equip yourself with: 2 round cake tins (pans);20 cm/8 in or 23 cm/9 in round and square cake tins; a large baking tin (33 x 23 cm/13 x 9 in); a deep bun tin; a 23 cm/9 in spring form cake tin; a Swiss(jelly) roll tin; 2 baking sheets. Additional cake tins, round and square tins, spring form tins and tartlet tins in alternative sizes are also useful. Casseroles: A least 1 heavy bottomed casserole (round and oval are available)with a lid is essential for roasting, stewing baking and browning. Casseroles can be made of enameled cast iron, earthenware or ovenproof glass-ceramic. Buy a flameproof one if you want to start cooking on the hob then transfer to the oven.

Chopping boards: Use different boards for different uses, and keep separate boards for vegetables and raw and cooked meat and fish. In addition to wood, boards are often made in modern, dishwasher-proof materials, and often include anti-bacterial agents. A good quality board will last for years. Colander: For draining food.

Double boiler: In two parts, which can also be used independently, a double boiler will be useful for heating any render ingredients that should not be exposed to direct heat.

Flour sifter: For sifting and adding air to flour.

Food mill: Useful for pureeing food without destroying the texture. Will also mash and grind. Buy one that clamps over a saucepan or mixing howl. Frying pans: You need at least one small and one large frying pan, preferably with lids. Useful extras would-be an omelette pan, a pancake pan and/or a sauté pan. Frying pans should have a good, thick base, to allow the heat to spread evenly and maintain constant temperature, but whether you choose non-stick ones or not is a matter of personal preference. They make life easier for some recipes, such as egg-based dishes, as they are less likely to stick. However, it is harder to get good browning on foods as non-stick pans cannot withstand a high heat. If your pans come with instructions to season before use, do so, as seasoning helps to prolong the life of the pan.

Grater: For grating and slicing various vegetables and cheese. One that stands upright with several sizes of teeth and a slicer is most useful.

Kitchen scales: Essential for weighing larger amounts of ingredients. Balance scales give the most accurate readings. Kitchen scissors and shears: You will be surprised how often a pair of sturdy kitchen scissors are needed, whilst poultry shears are a useful extra for all types of kitchen cutting. Make sure the handles are sturdy and comfortable.

Knives: A good set of knives is most important in food preparation. Flimsy, dull or nicked knives can turn even the chopping of onions into an arduous task. Carbon steel knives can be given the sharpest edge, but they rust and discolour easily so must be washed and dried immediately after use. High-carbon stainless steel knives will take a sharp edge and resist discoloration, but are more expensive. Ordinary stainless steel knives are very difficult to sharpen efficiently.

Always use the right-sized knife for the job: a 18-20 cm/7-8 in-bladed knife is essential for chopping vegetables, meats and herbs; a small-bladed paring knife, about 7.5 cm/3 in, will do for trimming and peeling fruits and vegetables; and a flexible vegetable knife with serrated edge and pointedtip is good for slicing. A chef’s knife with 25 cm/10 in blade is also useful.You may also want: a filleting knife with a thin, flexible 18 cm/7 in blade and sharp point; a boning knife with a thin 15 cm/6 in blade; a 15 cm/6 in-bladed utility knife; a grapefruit knife with curved serrated blade; and a carving knife and fork. Store knives in a knife block or a magnetized bar and keep them sharp; more accidents occur with blunt knives than sharp ones.

Measuring jug (pitcher), spoons and cups: It is important to measure ingredients carefully when following a recipe, and good measuring equipment makes this easier. Buy a standard set of spoons (1/4 tsp, 1/2 tsp, 1 tsp and 1 tbsp) for measuring small amounts of liquid and dry ingredients. Measuring cups are also available for recipes using cup sizes; glass is useful for liquids and metal for dry ingredients.

Meat grinder: A sturdy metal grinder that clamps to the table can be used for grinding meat, nuts and vegetables. Metal spoons: Very useful, keep several in various sizes for general mixing, stirring and blending.

Mixing bowls: A graduated set of stainless steel, glass or glazed earthenware bowls will he adequate foremost mixing jobs; an unlined copper bowl helps egg whites to expand.

Palette knives (spatula) and slices: A palette knife with a flexible 25 cm/I0 in blade and a fish slice are probably the most useful to buy. Pastry board: Formica and marble arc excellent materials for rolling and kneading pastry, but a hardwood board will also do.

Pastry brush: A medium-sized brush with sturdy bristles for applying liquids(fat, milk, water) to studies.

Pestle and mortar: When using fresh spices, crush small amounts with a pestle and mortar.

Pie and flan tins (pans): These should he made of dull metal, glass or ceramic. Include a 23 cm/9 in pie tin, an oval or round pie dish and a 23 cm/9 in flan tin with removable bottom, or a flan ring in your collection. Additional pie and flan tins in alternative sizes will also be useful. Ring moulds are ideal for angel cakes.

Roasting tins (pans): These can beamed of any material but they must be sturdy and supplied with racks. Use assize in which the ingredients fit comfortably: if a tin is too full, the ingredients will take longer to cook; if it is too empty, they may burn.

Rolling pin: A heavy one is best, buy one about 35-40 cm/14-16 in long. Rubber spatula: For folding foods, but also useful for other jobs.

Saucepans: Buy heavy-bottomed pans with sturdy insulated handles and knobs and tight-fitting lids. Bear in mind how much the pan will weigh when full (a large pot for pasta or stock must not be too heavy for you to lift when full). Copper conducts heat best, but is hard to care for. Aluminium is good as is cast iron, although the latter needs scrupulous care to prevent rust. A vitreous enamel coating is a good compromise. Stainless steel is lightweight and durable but it conducts heat unevenly. One containing another metal can improve heat conduction.

You need a set of pans of varying sizes with at least 3 saucepans. It is especially important to have the right-sized pan when cooking soups, stews and pot-roasts; ingredients packed in a pan that is too small may overflow or increase the cooking time whilst liquid in a pan that is too big will evaporate, causing the dish to dry out. A large stockpot or casserole dish with lid is also handy. Sieves:1 metal and 1 nylon for general sifting and straining.

Thermometers: An oven thermometer is useful for gauging the degree unevenness of heat in your oven. Use a meat thermometer for measuring the internal heat of meat and poultry by inserting the spiked end into the thickest part of the meat without touching bone or resting in fat.

Wire racks: For cooling cakes, buns and bread.

For those who love cooking, good equipment or specialized items, such as a pasta machine, make wonderful gifts.

Wire whisk: One about 20-25 cm/8-10 in for beating egg whites and whipping cream, stirring gravies and smoothing sauces, and perhaps a large balloon-shaped one specifically for egg whites (it adds more air and increases the volume).

Wok: Essential if you enjoy stir-fried food and Asian dishes. Make sure you buy the right wok for your type of cooker (stove); if you cook on electric rings, you’ll need one with a flat base so that it comes into contact with the heat source. Consider also steamers for cooking vegetables.

Wooden spoons and spatulas: For creaming, heating and stirring.

Miscellaneous utensils

Everybody has their own preferences when it comes to extra tools and gadgets, but the following are probably on everyone’s list of kitchen-drawer essentials: can openers (wall-mounted and a bottle/beer can type, slotted spoon, potato masher or ricer, colander, sieve, bulb baster, metal tongs, juicer, corkscrew, vegetable peeler and kitchen timer. In addition you may want to include a meat mallet, citrus zester, cannelle knife, apple corer, melon bailer, pastry blender, pastry scraper, trussing needle, cherry stoner(pitter), pasta machine, salad spinner.

This stainless steel spice container is ideal for storing dried spices. The individual pots are sealed when the inner lid is closed: a second lid ensures that no light or moisture gets in.

Measuring techniques

Cooks with years of experience may not need to measure ingredients, but if you are a beginner or are trying a new recipe for the first time, it is best to follow instructions carefully.

Both metric and imperial measurements are given in this hook. When preparing a recipe, use all metric or all imperial measures. Eggs are size 3(medium) unless specified otherwise and recipes have been tested using a conventional not fan-assisted oven.

• For liquids measured in ml or litres(pints or cups): Use a glass or plastic measuring jug. Put it on a flat surface and pour in the liquid. Check that the liquid is level with the marking on the jug, as specified in the recipe.

• For liquids measured in spoons: Pour the liquid into the measuring spoon, to the brim, and then pour it into the mixing bowl. Do not hold the spoon over the bowl when measuring because liquid may overflow.

• For measuring butter: Cut with a sharp knife and weigh, or cut off the specified amount following the markings on the wrapping paper.

• For measuring dry ingredients by weight: Surprisingly useful in the kitchen, scoop or pour on to the scales, watching the dial or reading carefully. Balance scales give more accurate readings than spring scales.

• For measuring dry ingredients in a spoon: Fill the spoon, scooping up the ingredients. Level the surface even with the rim of the spoon, using the straight edge of a knife.

• For measuring syrups: Set the mixing bowl on the scales and turn the gauge to zero, or make a note of the weight. Pour in the required weight of syrup.

Sometimes in patients who have undergone removal of the stomach (most probably from severe peptic ulceration) a similar situation can occur. However, as the liver can store vitamin B12 with amounts that may last up to five years, it may be several years after surgery that the symptoms will commence. In other patients who have bowel disorders, there may be interference in folic acid absorption. A condition called Crohn’s disease may be present, or there may have been surgical removal of part of the bowel, coeliac disease, sprue and certain other disorders.

During pregnancy there is a large increase in the body’s need for folic acid. For this reason, folic acid is now given routinely together with iron to all women during pregnancy.

Some patients on drug medication for other conditions have their folic-acid supplies adversely affected. This ma y include drugs taken for epilepsy, and certain sulfa drugs, to name some of the more common ones implicated.

Apart from affecting the red cells. these deficiencies may also adversely affect the production of the white cells and platelets, both of which may be reduced in numbers. This in turn may produce serious symptoms and conditions attributed to this.

Vitamin B12 Deficiency Symptoms

The symptoms will be a combination of the usual symptoms of anaemia, plus symptoms of the underlying cause. A glossitis (sore, red tongue) usually occurs as well. The blood picture shows abnormal cells, and there is a reduced number of white cells and platelets.

Inadequate vitamin B12 may also react adversely on the nervous system, producing a serious condition called subacute combined degeneration of the spinal cord. This also produces symptoms that are described under the nervous system. It is essential that this condition be treated early, for damage to the cord may be rectified with prompt early treatment.

But if left, these changes may be permanent, much to the discomfort of the patient. Tests are available that directly measure the blood levels of folic acid and vitamin B12. (Refer to the section on vitamins for a list of foods rich in these substances.)

Vitamin B12 Deficiency Treatment

Therapy is very satisfactory, and the results relatively prompt. Once the diagnosis has been established, the doctor will most likely order folic acid in tablet form, commonly giving 5 mg three times a day.

Vitamin B12 is usually given in the form of an injection. Over the years the exact chemical formulation has changed. It used to be cyanocobalamin. often injected weekly by the doctor or district nurse. However. this has now changed to a related product called hydroxocobalamin 1000 (equals 1 000 micrograms/ ml) that is claimed to offer adequate protection if given once each three months by injection. This is now the routine in Australia and New Zealand for pernicious anaemia patients. Nevertheless, many older patients claimed they felt better on their monthly or bimonthly shots of B12 in the older form.

The injections may he necessary for the rest of the patient’s life. They are painless and adverse side effects are extremely uncommon. It is a small price to pay for a supplement that yields such dramatic and beneficial results.

For more information about vitamin b12 deficiency, please visit:
Vitamin B12 Deficiency Symptoms

What is Ulcer?

Ulcers may commonly occur in the oral cavity. They may come on suddenly, probably preceded by a small watery blister that erupts, leaving a shallow ulcer with a grey or yellow base. They are sometimes painful, and often take some time to heal. Various types of oral ulcers are described. Aphthous ulcers (also known as canker sore or dyspeptic ulcers of the mouth) are thought to be due to certain foods, and allergy may play a part. The advice is often put forward that, by leaving off possible irritating foods such as citrus fruits, nuts and chocolates, the risk of recurrence may be lessened.

Vincent’s angina is another form of painful throat that is often accompanied with ulceration of the oral cavity. It is thought to be due to infecting organisms, and sometimes follows dental work. It appears to be more common in people whose general level of health is poor. Symptoms. These forms of ulceration often come on abruptly. They may be accompanied with constitutional symptoms, such as mild fever and general malaise. The ulcers are usually painful, and may occur on the gums. the inner sides of the lips, tongue or throat. There may be general inflammation around them, and the lymph glands under the jaw and in the neck on the affected side may be swollen and quite painful to touch. Eating food is often painful, and salty food produces considerable discomfort in the ulcer itself.

Ulcer Treatment

Bland mouthwashes often help to remove debris from the ulcers. Adding half a teaspoon of common salt to a glass of hot water and rinsing every few hours stings. but can afford some relief. Avoiding products that are known to aggravate might prevent recurrences. In some ulcers, antibiotics will be effective, but usually this is not so. Your doctor may prescribe such medication as figures regularly testify. Regular care by the dentist will help prevent caries and gum problems. Prevention in this area is the best line.

Pets can give a lot of pleasure. They make good companions for all ages and are an excellent way for children to learn about responsibility and caring for others. Being a deterrent to burglars and an intruder alarm, a family dog also helps to safeguard the home.

Keeping pets involves a lot of responsibility, however, and they can cause accidents and spread disease if not properly looked after. Make sure you know how to care for any animal you own and that whichever member of the family takes on the routine tasks will have enough time and commitment to do the job properly. Bear these points in mind when deciding what sort of pet to bring into the home.

Living with dogs

Dogs interact with humans so well that they soon become a member of the household, demanding their equal share of company and attention to keep them happy and well behaved. As dogs can live for ten to 15 years or even more, owning one is a long-term commitment. Feeds need to be regular, as does exercise. Grooming is necessary to keep the dog’s skin and coat in good condition, and to minimize the amount of hair shed in the house, and with long-haired varieties, this can overtime become more of a chore than a pleasure. Dogs bring dirt and dust into the house, so increasing the amount of housework around them.

Choose the breed carefully to suit your family situation; dogs are bred for certain characteristics and different types can require much more exercise and feeding than others. Most dogs do not like to be left alone for long periods, and some can become destructive in the home. Check on the dog’s likely temperament and if you are buying a puppy try to see both parents.

Training is another important aspect in a dog’s life. Dogs must always be kept under control and well behaved, especially in public. An uncontrollable dog is a potential danger in the home and on the street. If you have any difficulty with training your dog, seek out a training group, where your dog can learn to socialize with other canines and learn to respond to your commands.

Keeping cats

Cats are much more independent than dogs, and require less care and attention. They groom themselves, unless they are long-haired, and often spend a lot of their time on their own. However, when they do want attention, or a nice warm lap to snuggle into, they can be very affectionate and rewarding as pets. They will even play with you, but on their terms and only when they feel like it.

It is wise to get a male cat neutered and a female cat spayed. Males grow into rangy beasts which take to fighting and spraying your property as they mark out their own territory. Females can, and most probably will, start to reproduce at six months of age and can produce two litters a year. Finding good homes for the kittens can become a regular headache. Talk to your local vet about the best time to spay and neuter your pet, if unsure.

Small rodents

Mice, hamsters, guinea pigs and rabbits all have their particular charms. They are generally relatively short-lived, although some rabbits do go on for many years. Although they are much cheaper to keep than either dogs or cats, they all need to be contained in cages, preferably with areas or runs large enough for them to exercise in. Hamsters particularly like toys and wheels to play with and guinea pigs and rabbits benefit from being allowed to run out of doors. Cages should be cleaned weekly.

Many children are wonderfully at ease with pets, but it is a good idea to show them how to hold and handle animals safely.

Never be in too much of a hurry to put a plant into a larger container. Plants do not appreciate having their roots disturbed, and any damage to them will result in some check to growth. Some types of houseplants also prefer to be in small pots.

Re-potting should never simply be an annual routine. It is a job to be thought about annually, but should not actually be done unless a plant needs it. Young plants require potting on much more frequently than older ones. Once a large specimen is in a big pot, it may be better to keep it growing by re-potting into another pot of the same size, by top-dressing (see below right), or simply by additional feeding.

When re-potting is necessary

The sight of roots growing through the base of the pot is not in itself a sign that re-potting is immediately necessary. If you have been watering the plants through a capillary mat, or have placed the pot in a cache-pot, some roots will inevitably have grown through the base to seek the water.

If you are in doubt, knock the plant out of its pot. To remove the root-ball easily, invert the pot and knock the rim on a hard surface while supporting the plant and compost (potting soil) with your hand. It is normal for a few roots to run around the inside of the pot, but if there is also a solid mass of roots it is time to pot on. There are several ways to re-pot a plant, but the 2 methods described here are among the best

POT-IN-POT METHOD

1 Prepare the new pot as in step 1 of the Traditional Method if you are using a clay pot. However, if you are using a plastic pot and you intend to use a capillary watering mat, do not cover the drainage hole at all.

WHEN TO RE-POT

A mass of thick roots growing through the bottom of the pot (top) is an indication that it is time to move the plant into a larger one. Equally, a mass of roots curled around the edge of the pot (above) is a sign that it is time for a larger container.

The vast majority of plants on sale are grown in plastic pots, which are inexpensive, light and remain largely free of algae. Plastic pots do become brittle with age, however, and even a slight knock can break them, whereas a clay pot will not break unless you actually drop it on a hard surface.

TOP-DRESSING

1. Once plants are in large pots, perhaps 25-30 cm (10-12 in) in diameter, continual potting on into a larger pot may not be practical. Try removing the top few centimetres (inches) of compost (potting soil), loosening it first with a small hand fork. Replace this with fresh potting compost of the same type. This, plus regular feeding, will enable most plants to be grown in the same pot for many years.

2. Put in a little dampened compost (potting soil). Insert the existing pot (or an empty one of the same size), ensuring that the soil level will be 12 mm/1/2 in below the top of the new pot when filled.

3. Pack more compost firmly between the inner and outer pots, pressing it down gently with your fingers. This will create a mould when you remove the inner pot.

4. Remove the inner pot, then take the plant from its original container and place it in the hole formed in the centre of the new compost. Gently firm the compost around the root-ball, and water thoroughly.

TRADITIONAL METHOD

1. Prepare a pot that is either 1 or 2. sizes larger than the original and, if the pot is a clay one, cover the drainage hole with pieces of broken pot or a few pieces of chipped hark.

2. Water the Plant to he re-potted, and leave it for a few minutes. Remove the root-ball from the old pot, either by pulling gently on the plant, or by inverting the pot and tapping the rim on a hard surface.

3. Place a little compost (potting soil) in the base of the new pot, then position the root-ball so that it is at the correct height. If it sits too low or too high, adjust the amount of compost in the base.

4. Trickle more compost around the sides, turning the pot as you work. It is a good idea to use the same kind of compost -peat- (peat-moss) or loam-based — as used in the original pot.

5. Gently firm the compost with your fingers. Make sure that there is a gap of about 12 mm-2.5 cm (1/2-1 in) between the top of the compost and the rim of the pot, to allow for watering. Water thoroughly.

POTTING ON, POTTING UP, RE-POTTING

Potting up is what happens the first time a seedling or cutting is given its own individual pot.

Potting on is the action of re-planting the root-hall in a larger pot.

Re-potting is sometimes taken to mean replacing the plant in a pot of the same size, but with the bulk of the compost replaced, if the plant cannot he moved into a larger pot.

The most expensive piece of equipment needed for making soft furnishings is a sewing machine. Although a modem swing-needle machine is preferable because of its zigzag stitching, an ordinary straight stitch machine, either hand or electric, is perfectly adequate. Always work a small piece of practice stitching on a fabric sample before starting a project, adjusting the stitch length and tension as necessary. Fit anew needle whenever necessary; machine needles become blunt very quickly, especially when sewing on synthetic blends, and a blunt needle can cause uneven stitches and puckering. Have the machine serviced by a professional repairer at regular intervals and put it away after each sewing session to prevent it from becoming covered with dust.

A steam iron is also essential. Choose a tidily heavyweight one and keep the sole plate spotlessly clean at all times. Fill the iron with distilled water (available from a pharmacy or motor accessory shop) when using the steam facility to avoid limescale forming inside the water reservoir and clogging the steam jets. A sturdy ironing board with a well-padded surface or slip-on cover is also needed.

Sewing needles come in various shapes and sizes; choose a type of needle which feels comfortable when stitching. As a general guide, betweens are short needles, sharps are slightly longer and used when tacking (basting) or gathering, straws or milliner’s needles are very long and useful when sewing through several layers of fabric.

STORING EQUIPMENT

Try to keep the necessary equipment in good order, clean and tidily stored so it is always easy to find immediately. A plastic tool box with divided trays is useful tor this purpose.

Fabric, threads and trimmings should be stored in a cool, dust-free place. Keep off cuts of fabric in self-seal plastic bags with the appropriate threads and label the bags with the date and the name of the project. This is useful in case the stitching needs to be repaired or a patch needs to be added to conceal a damaged area.

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT

There are different types of needle threader available and these can be helpful when using fine, hard-to-thread needles. Whether or not a thimble is used when hand sewing is largely a matter of personal preference, but using one will protect the fingers.

Glass-headed pins are easy to see and handle. If the ordinary type of pin is preferred, choose a brand which is stainless and rustproof to avoid marking the fabric. Store pins in a dry place. A small horseshoe magnet is useful to retrieve pins and needles from the floor after a sewing session.

There are several types of sewing threads for both hand and machine use. Use mercerized cotton thread when sewing pure cotton and linen; core-spun thread (thread with a coating of cotton around a polyester core) for general purpose stitching; spun polyester thread on synthetic fabrics. Use tacking thread for tacking in preference to sewing thread as it breaks easily and tacking can here moved without damaging the fabric.

Good quality scissors are a real investment as they will cut accurately and stay sharp longer than cheaper ones. Drop-forged scissors are heavy, but the blades can be sharpened repeatedly over many years while the lightweight type with plastic handles are very comfortable to use. Buy a large pair with 28 cm/I I in blades for cutting out fabric, a medium-sized pair with 10 to 12.5 cm/4 to 5 in blades for trimming seams and cutting small pieces of fabric and a small pair of needlework scissors for unpicking or snipping thread ends.

Choose a fibreglass tape measure as fabric and plastic tape measures will eventually stretch and become inaccurate. A wooden metre rider or yard stick is also useful. A dressmaker’s pencil is more convenient for marking fabric than tailor’s chalk as it can he sharpened to a fine point. Choose white or yellow for marking dark fabrics and blue for light ones.

The metric and imperial measurements quoted in the following projects are not exact equivalents. Always follow just one set of measures, either centimetres or inches, to ensure perfect results. Note also that contrasting thread has been used for the stitching for clarity only; it is normal to match the colour of the thread with the dominant shade of the furnishing fabric.

Most items of soft furnishing are expensive to buy ready-made but they can he made just as successfully at home and much more cheaply. Curtains and drapes, cushion covers, bed linen and table linen require the minimum of sewing skills and little equipment beyond a sewing machine and an iron.

The choice of fabric plays a major part in setting the style of a room, creating accents of colour to enliven a neutral decor or providing a means of coordinating different elements effectively in a loom. Colour is an important consideration when furnishing a room —light shades tend to open it out, while dark and vivid shades tend to enclose it. Many people tend to play safe by choosing neutral or pastel shades which, although easy to live with, can look rather boring and impersonal.

Making soft furnishings at home is the perfect way to experiment with colour and make a visual statement. Most items require a few metres (yards) of fabric at the most. A good point to hear in mind when selecting fabric is that there are no hard-and-fast rules, apart from trying not to mix

too many different colours and patterns in one setting. Most good stores will supply swatches of furnishing fabrics without charge for colour matching at home.

Another consideration is that the chosen fabric should be suitable for the intended purpose — for example, heavyweight cloths will make up into good curtains and cushion covers but will he too stiff to make a successful tablecloth or bed valance. Many of these details are primarily common sense but, when in doubt, be guided by the sales assistant’s specialist knowledge.

Stamping is a quick and effective way of repeating a design on a wide variety of surfaces, using many different mixtures of paints and inks. It does not require a great deal of specialist equipment; many of the items used are found in most households.

Craft knife: a sharp-bladed craft knife is essential for cutting your own stamps our of thick sponge or foam. Use a cutting mat to protect your work surface, and always direct the blade away from your fingers.

Lino blocks: linoleum blocks are available from art and craft shops and can be cut to make stamps which recreate the look of a wood block. You will need special lino-cutting tools, which are also easily available, to accurately scoop out the areas around the design. Hold the lino with your spare hand behind your cutting hand for safety. Always cut away from you. Masking tape: use for masking off areas of walls and furniture when painting. Natural sponge: available in various sizes, use for applying colour washes to walls before stamping.

Paintbrushes: a range of decorator’s brushes is needed for painting furniture and walls before stamping. Use a broad brush to apply colour washes to walls. Stiff brushes can be used for stippling paint on to stamps for textured effects, while finer brushes are used to pick out details or to apply paint to the stamp. Pencils, pens and crayons: use a soft pencil to trace templates for stamps, and for making easily removable guidelines on walls. Draw motifs freehand using a marker pen on medium- and low-density sponge. Always use a white crayon on black upholstery foam.

Rags: keep a stock of clean rags and cloths for cleaning stamps and preparing surfaces.

Ruler and tape measure: use these to plan your design.

Scissors: use sharp scissors to cut out medium- and low-density sponge shapes, and are especially useful for cutting out the basic shapes. Also handy for cutting out templates. .Sponge rollers: use to apply the paint evenly over the whole stamp. Small paint rollers can be used to load your stamps, though you will need several if you are stamping in different colours. Use a brush to apply a second colour to act as a highlight or shadow, or to pick out details of the design

The uterus is a pear-shaped organ, with the narrow cervical part extending from the vaginal roof. It widens out into the vault. A narrow canal penetrates the cervix. This is called the cervical canal, and the external part that joins up with the vagina is called the external os (or hole), and the inner one is termed the internal os.

Inside, the cavity of the uterus widens out, although in normal everyday life its thick walls lie very closely together. The uterus measures about nine centimetres long, six centimetres in width at its widest part and four centimetres in thickness from front to back. It weighs about 40 grams to 60 grams, and its walls (when not pregnant) are one to two centimetres in thickness.

It sits in the pelvis in the midline, and tilts forward. Behind is the bowel, and in front is the bladder.

The uterus is lined with very special tissue called the endometrium. The thickness of this varies from day to day, according to the day of the menstrual cycle. This is under the direct control of

chemicals called hormones, which are produced by the ovaries, as well as by some other parts of the body. Every 28 days (this varies a little with each woman) menstruation takes place. During this time, which extends anywhere from two to nine days, the lining of the uterus is gradually shed. This is recognised by the woman in the form of bright red bleeding occurring on a regular basis. It is termed the menstrual period, but goes by many colloquial names. Whenever a woman uses quaint names for it, it is usually not difficult to understand what she is referring to.

The main part of the uterus is called the body, and the very uppermost part is referred to by doctors as the fundus. This part is often quoted during examinations in the course of a pregnancy, for the height of the fundus gradually rises as the pregnancy advances. It can give a rough estimation of the age of the developing foetus inside.

At the upper corner of the uterus (called the cornu or horn) on each side, a narrow canal leads out and joins with the oviduct. This is a tube, and on each side extends outwards for about 10 centimetres.

The oviduct is also known as the Fallopian tube. At the far end, the oviduct comes into close approximation with the ovary, a whitish-grey organ about the size and shape of an almond. The ovary is packed with microscopic, partially developed eggs, which have been present since birth. By the time puberty is reached (anywhere from nine years onwards), nearly a quarter of a million of these eggs are contained in the ovary. This is an enormous number, and only a fraction of the total will ever be utilised during a woman’s normal reproductive life cycle.

The far end of the oviduct has numerous fingerlike tentacles that largely overhang the ovary. They are present for a very special and important reason. Approximately each 28 days (this varies in different women, but averages this figure), a developing ovum suddenly works its way to the surface of the ovary, and bursts through the surface. It leaves a minute space on the surface of the ovary that quickly fills with blood, and this becomes known as the corpus luteum. Very rapidly this organ commences to produce a special hormone, or chemical, called progesterone, which is pumped into the general bloodstream, and has a profound effect on the uterus.

Conception

Meanwhile, the released egg, or ovum, is suddenly swept up by the fingerlike tentacles of the oviduct. It makes its way rapidly into the free end of the tube. The cells lining the tube have special hair like projections on them called cilia. These move with a sweeping motion in the direction of the uterus.

So the egg has little choice but to be carried along toward the uterus. Should the egg encounter a male reproductive cell (called a sperm) while in the tube, then fertilisation takes place as the two cells unite. At this instant, conception has occurred, and the woman is then pregnant.

The fertilised egg continues on its way to the uterus, which under the powerful influence of progesterone (from the corpus luteum of the ovary) is rapidly preparing for pregnancy.

The uterine walls thicken, its blood supply is increased, and all is in readiness. The single cell of the egg quickly subdivides, then redivides, and continues to divide, the number of cells doubling on each occasion. By the time it reaches the uterus it has developed into a mass of cells. This then becomes embedded in the thick lining (the endometrium) of the uterine walls, and the pregnancy is under way.

But if the egg fails to contact a male cell, a different situation occurs. It will reach the uterus, and fails to become embedded in the walls, even though they are ready to receive it.

Suddenly the whole process comes to an abrupt halt. The corpus luteum senses that pregnancy has not occurred, so it turns off its progesterone production. Suffering from this lack of chemical, the uterine wall gradually commences to crumble. At first this is represented by a tiny trickle of bright red blood, which escapes to the outside through the vagina.

Over the next several days, this increases, until finally the entire endometrial lining is shed in this manner. A normal menstrual period takes place; the uterine wall is reduced to its. normal state, and once more another cycle commences. Menstrual bleeding starts about 14 days following the release of the egg from the ovary, if pregnancy has not taken place.

Meanwhile, back at the ovary, another follicle gradually makes its way to the surface, and the whole process is repeated. Nature is very persistent. Even though the chances of pregnancy in any one menstrual month are very slim, the process is repeated from the time of the menarche (when menstruation occurs in young females, often around the age of 10 – 16 years) until it ceases, at the so called change of life, or menopause, which is anywhere from the age of 45 – 50 years, or maybe even later.

Ovulation, the moment the egg is released from the ovary, takes place 14 days before the onset of a menstrual period. Pregnancy may take place only in the 24 – 48 hours immediately following this event. This, of course, means that sexual intercourse must occur during that time.

With the enormous number of unplanned, and apparently unwanted babies that are conceived, it is incredible what can take place on a universal basis during that critical 24-48-hours time segment!

Nature’s chief aim is to guarantee reproduction of the species. Therefore, it uses every wile to ensure that this will take place. Just as the system’s hormones help to secure pregnancy internally, so they have profound psychological and emotional effects as well.

Many women have a heightened libido (a desire for lovemaking) at the crucial time when pregnancy is most likely. They are more responsive, more sensuous, more amorous, more “desirable,” as many a faltering male has later on discovered to his dismay (or joy, whatever his attitude to the outcome happens to be).

The act of intercourse means that the male organ of reproduction, the penis, penetrates the vagina. Erection occurs, and this is stimulated by psychological overtones, all inherent in the lovemaking process.

At the point of orgasm (frequently referred to as the climax), millions of male reproductive cells (called spermatozoa, or sperms for short) pour forth from the end of the penis, to be deposited high up in the vaginal tract.

The uterine cervix is bathed temporarily in the seminal fluid, and the cells actively swim up the cervical canal into the uterine cavity. Many are casualties by the way, but a few stalwarts ultimately penetrate into the oviducts (the Fallopian tubes), and work their way along the duct in the quest for an egg.

Should one be encountered, the remaining sperms will actively surround the egg. Finally, one with greater sustaining powers than his fellows will penetrate the outer layers of the egg, enter it, and immediately fuse with it inside to produce a fertilised egg. At this instant, conception has taken place, and the woman is then pregnant. The egg continues on its way down the tube as described previously.

Door and window fittings can be ornamental as well as practical and secure. The simplest type of door catch is a spring-loaded ball which is recessed into the door edge. The ball is inexpensive to buy and easy to fit. A more positive action is provided by the door edge and has a projecting bolt that is flat on one lace and curved on the other. As the door is pushed shut, the curved face hits the striking plate on the door and pushes the bolt back into the latch body. When the door is fully closed the bolt springs out into the recess in the striking plate, with its face providing a positive latching movement. The action of turning the handle rotates a spindle, withdrawing the bolt from the striking plate and allowing the door to open again. A mortise lock combines the same type of latch mechanism with a lockable bolt.

The most common items of hardware used on hinged windows are a rotating cockspur handle that is used simply to fasten the window, and a casement stay that props it open in one of several different positions. On sliding sash windows, the basic hardware consists of a catch screwed to the ‘back’ window that swings across to lock the 2 sashes together when they are closed.

FITTING A MORTISE LATCH

1. To fit a mortise latch to a new door, use the latch body to mark the mortise position on the door edge, in line with the center or lock block.
2. Set a mortise gauge to a setting just wider than the thickness of the latch body, and scribe the outline of the mortise centered on the door edge.
3. Use a flat wood bit in a power drill to make a series of holes between the guidelines, a little deeper than the length of the larch body.
4. Chop out the waste using a chisel and mallet, then pare down the sides of the manse and clean out the recess. Try the latch for fit in the mortise.
5. Draw around the latch faceplate on the edge of the door, then cut around the lines with a chisel and make a series of parallel cuts across the grain.
6. Carefully chisel out the waste wood between the marked guidelines, taking care not to let the chisel slip and cm beyond the ends of the recess.
7. Hold the latch body against the face of the door in line with the mortise with its faceplate flush with the door edge. Mark the spindle position.
8. Clamp a piece of scrap wood to the other side of the door. Drill a hole large enough to accept the spindle through the door into the scrap wood
9. Slide the latch into place in its mortise, and make pilot holes through the faceplate with a bradawl. Drive in the faceplate fixing screws.
10. Insert the spindle and fit a handle on to each end. Check that the spindle rotates freely, then screw both handles to the door.
11. Close the door in order to mark where the latch bolt meets the frame. Chisel out the recesses for the bolt and striking plate, and screw on the plate.

FITTING A WINDOW HANDLE AND STAY

SAFETY TIP

If you are lining lockable window catches and stays, do not leave the keys in the locks in case they fall out as you open and close the window. Instead, hang them on a pin driven into the window frame. This will also ensure that they are readily available should the window have to be opened quickly in an emergency.