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Undescended Testes happens fairly frequently. Normally the testes descend from the body to the scrotum shortly before birth. But occasionally they seem to get lost. They may partially descend, then return to the body. This may keep on occurring. Alternatively, the testes may have developed in an abnormal manner, and are situated in some different place. This is termed an ectopic testis.

The testes belong in the scrotum from birth onwards. If they remain in the body, as age progresses, the sperm-producing capacity is adversely affected and infertility may take place in later life.

The other may be very hazardous. Testes remaining in the body have a high risk of turning cancerous. What’s more, it may be a very serious, rapidly growing and spreading type.

Undescended Testes Treatment

If a parent notices the testes are missing or come and go, referral to the doctor is essential, and the sooner the better.

What treatment is carried out? This will vary with the patient and the exact diagnosis. Some doctors prefer to give hormonal treatment a trial run first. They administer the hormone chorionic gonadotrophin, and this is occasionally successful in bringing the testes into the scrotum.

What if this fails?

And fail it often does. Then a surgical approach is taken. This is invariably successful. The testes are found and anchored securely into the scrotum. The operation is quite straightforward; the patient rapidly recovers, and usually the beneficial effect is lifelong. It is a highly successful procedure. But as you said earlier, the sooner a parent takes action, the better. Never neglect any disorder in this region. It’s often quite obvious, and a check is very simple.

Originally posted 2010-05-09 21:06:39. Republished by Blog Post Promoter

What is Ovarian Tumour?

The ovaries are a fairly common site for the development of tumours. They are most frequently detected in women aged 35 years or more. They tend to grow slowly, and are often not discovered until they have grown to a relatively large size.
Often a lump welling up from the pelvic cavity (sometimes believed to be a pregnancy, even though menstruation may still be occurring) is the first indication. But in an obese woman, it may just appear that she is putting on even more weight in the abdominal region, and may be overlooked for a long time.
Many are discovered in the course of a routine pelvic examination for some other reason. (This is another reason in favour of having regular pelvic checks when returning for a repeat prescription of the contraceptive pill. If this is not carried out routinely by your own doctor, it is well worth asking for.) Many tumours are discovered during a laparoscopic examination of the pelvis.
Fortunately, about 95 per cent of ovarian tumours are benign (ie noncancerous). Benign tumours are usually cystic, so that if a cystic swelling is discovered, it usually means that it is a simple, noncancerous one.
However, the remaining 5 per cent still equals a lot, and malignancy in this area is fraught with problems. For cancer tends to grow at a steady rate, silently, and almost symptom-free in the early stages. Often, by the time adequate symptoms have occurred to make the patient seek medical assistance, the cancer has advanced to an incurable state. Once more this indicates the supreme value of regular medical examinations and pelvic checks throughout life. Discovering these disorders early (before symptoms set in) offers about the only chance of a successful outcome.

Ovarian Tumour Symptoms

Benign tumours never cause pain, unless some sort of complication occurs, and rarely do they affect menstrual function. Symptoms can take place if the tumour is on a lengthy stalk (pedicle), and it becomes twisted on itself. If the cystic swelling suddenly bursts. symptoms may also take place.
Princess Anne of Britain was in the news some years ago when it appeared that she had an ovarian cyst that had suddenly developed this complication. Sometimes a surgical emergency may arise. But with small cysts, a slight discomfort may be all that a woman experiences.
Very large tumours may produce symptoms from pressure on surrounding structures. Abdominal discomfort, lack of appetite and/or nausea may occur when the abdominal contents are squeezed by mechanical pressure. Malignant tumours of the ovaries are often associated with pain, particularly in the later stages when surrounding structures have become involved. Fluid in the pelvic cavity and weight loss are also other ominous signs.
Diagnosis of ovarian tumours may be simple, or they may be extremely difficult. Sometimes radiology and ultrasound aids are needed to help in distinguishing it from other possible diagnoses.

Ovarian Tumour Treatment

The course of action depends on the nature and severity of the symptoms being produced. If severe bleeding is occurring, particularly in an older woman, surgical removal of the uterus is often undertaken. If troublesome pressure symptoms are encountered, a similar approach is frequently made.
In younger women (especially those under the age of 40), and those still desirous of maintaining their reproductive function, myomectomy may be advised. One important flow-on benefit is that a substantial number of women who appeared to be infertile (presumably due to the presence of the tumour) subsequently become pregnant after this operation.
Treatment of most ovarian tumours is surgical. In young women, every effort is made to preserve as much of the normal ovary (if there is any left) as possible. This help ensure continuation of the system’s hormonal supply, and so help maintain a feeling of normality.
As there is a risk of benign cysts turning cancerous, they are usually removed. Smaller ones are either ruptured or removed alone or with the ovary through the operating laparoscope. as seen in full colour by the doctor on a VDU screen, which sits next to the patient. It can sometimes be difficult to know if a tumour is in fact cancerous or not until it has been thoroughly examined by the pathologist under the microscope. Any parts that are removed must always be scrutinised by the experts for a full report.
In older women, frequently a greater amount of tissue is removed, for there is often an increased risk of cancer. Ovarian cancer is a serious disease and follow-up therapy is usually carried out. Development of Taxol, from the yew tree, holds hope for the future. Time will tell.
The main point in this section is the need to recognise that ovarian tumours are relatively common. While most are noncancerous, there is a real risk that malignancy may develop.
The sooner diagnosis is made and treatment undertaken, the better. There is also a case for regular pelvic examinations throughout life in order to detect any such abnormality as early as possible.

Endometrial Ablation

New technology continues to improve the lot of many women undergoing surgery. In many cases, in women with heavy bleeding for no obvious cause, the traditional D and C or hysterectomy (womb removal) is being replaced by endometrial ablation. This is carried out in hospital under a general anaesthetic. A camera looks inside the womb, and this is displayed on a VDU screen nearby, and the surgeon works from this, gently manipulating the instruments. A “rollerball” or laser beam then systematically removes the endometrial lining of the womb. This goes deeply, so that subsequent scar tissue will prevent new tissue lining from growing.
In most cases, bleeding is dramatically reduced. Pregnancy is usually no longer possible. The patient normally recovers quickly. It is a much lesser operation than womb removal, and the patient may return home and back to normal duties fairly quickly.

Laparoscopic Hysterectomy

The laparoscopic method is being used for an increasing range of surgical operations. Many gynaecologists use it for womb removal (hysterectomy) Tubes (one containing a camera and lights) are inserted via tiny 1 cm incisions called portals low down in the pelvis. This is shown up on the VDU screen, and the surgeon gently dissects away the unwanted parts.
Finally, the womb (and other organs if need be) is removed via an incision high up in the vaginal canal. Recovery is claimed to be quicker, although the operation still takes a considerable period of time, and specialised surgical skills and equipment are required.

Originally posted 2010-04-15 05:27:00. Republished by Blog Post Promoter

There are 3 types of decorative cornice commonly used in today’s homes. The first type is roving, a relative of sheet plasterboard (gypsum hoard), which consists of a concave hollow-hacked plaster core sheathed in a strong paper envelope. It is fixed in place with adhesive. The second is molded cornice; this is made either from traditional fibrous plaster or from modern foamed plastics to imitate the ornate decorative cornices often found in older buildings, and comes in a range of profiles. Plaster types must generally be secured in place with screws because of their weight, but plastic types can simply be stuck in position with adhesive. The third type is a machined wooden trim with a similar profile to plasterboard cornice, and is either nailed direct to the wall framing or to a nailing strip or barren (furring strip) in the angle of the wall and ceiling.

Apart from its decorative appearance in framing the ceiling, a cornice can also help to conceal unsightly cracks. These often open up around the ceiling perimeter as the ceiling expands and contracts with changes in temperature and humidity, or as the building settles.

FITTING A CORNICE (CROWN MOLDING)

1. Hold a length of cornice squarely in the wall/ceiling angle and draw 2 guidelines on the wall and ceiling surfaces. Cut any mitred edges.
2. Remove any old wall coverings from between the guidelines by dry scraping them. Cross hatch painted or bare plaster to key the surface.
3. Either mix up powder adhesive or use already mixed type. Using a flat scraper ‘butter’ the adhesive on to both edges of the rear of the cornice.
4. Press the length into place between the guidelines, supporting it if necessary with partly driven masonry nails. Remove the nails (if used) once the adhesive has set.
5. Fit the adjacent corner piece next. Here, the next section also incorporates an external mitre; measure and cut this carefully before fitting the length.
6. Complete the external comer with a further length of cornice, hurting the cut ends closely together and ensuring that the length fits between the lines.
7. Fill any slight gaps at external and internal angles with a little cellulose filler(spackle), applied with a filling knife (putty knife) to leave a crisp, clean joint, sand the filler smooth once it has hardened.
8. Before the adhesive hardens, use a damp sponge to remove any excess from wall and ceiling surfaces and also to smooth over the filled joints.

CUTTING A CORNICE (CROWN MOLDING)

1. Make up a large mitre block big enough to hold the cornice, and use this and a tenon saw to make accurate 45° cuts for internal and external corners.
2. Some cornice manufacturers supply a paper template that enables cutting lines to be marked accurately for internal and external corners.
3. When using cut pieces to complete a wall, mark off the length required directly, square a line across the cornice with a pencil and cut it to length.

Small plants can be displayed more creatively than just in individual pots. Plant them in groups in planters or baskets, or in a shallow container on a pedestal. You can even create a miniature garden in a large bottle. An advantage of grouping plants is that you can get away with less than perfect specimens. A plant with lopsided growth, or one that is bare at the base, can be arranged so that its defects are hidden by other plants.

Grouped plants also benefit from the microclimate created when plants are grown together. The local humidity is likely to be a little higher as the leaves tend to protect each other from drying air and cold draughts, and it is easier to keep the compost (potting soil) evenly moist in a large container than a small one. Groupings are ideal for self-watering containers and for plants grown hydroponically, and simply ensuring a steady and even supply of moisture produces better growth.

Pedestals make good bases for plant displays. If you have an attractive pedestal, use short trailers that will cascade over the pot but will not completely hide the pedestal under a curtain of leaves. Plants with an arching rather than a cascading habit are also ideal for a pedestal where you want to show off both pot and pedestal. Another display idea is a pot-et-flour arrangement. This makes an ideal centerpiece, and gives plenty of scope for artistic presentation.

The still, protected and humid environment of a sealed bottle garden, with moisture re-circulating as it condenses and runs down the glass, makes it possible to grow many small jungle and rainforest type plants that would soon die in a normal room environment. Yet, if you leave the top off and water very carefully, a bottle garden can also be a pretty way to display those plants that enjoy less humid conditions

PLANTING A PEDESTAL ARRANGEMENT

Fill a wide, shallow, stable container with a layer of compost (potting soil).Choose a mixture of flowering and foliage plants for a spectacular display. Try them for position while still in their pots, until you are happy with the arrangement.
Remove the plants from their pots for final planting. Set those at the edge at an angle so that they tumble over the side.
Water, then sit the container in a saucer and position it on the pedestal.

CREATING A POT-ET-FLELJR WITH FOAM

1. If you are using a basket, line it with plastic to ensure that it is waterproof.
2. Position your foliage plants first, preferably in shallow pots.
3. Cut a block of absorbent stem-holding foam (this should be soaked overnight in water first) into pieces of the size required. Pack the pieces of foam between the pots to fill up all the gaps and hold the pots securely in position.
4. Insert your flowers (and some additional cut foliage if you wish) into the moist foam. Stand back from the arrangement and view it from a distance to see whether you are happy with the result, and add more flowers and foliage if necessary.
5. Place the arrangement in a fairly cool position, and replace the flowers and cut foliage as necessary (adding water to the foam will help to preserve them). If any of the foliage plants deteriorate in time, simply replace them with fresh ones.

PLANTING A BOTTLE GARDEN

1. Place a layer of charcoal and gravel or expanded clay granules in the bottom of a thoroughly clean, fairly deep bottle. Add compost (potting soil), using a funnel or cone made from a sheet of thick paper or thin cardboard as a guide.
2. If necessary, remove a little of the compost from the plants to make insertion easier. Unless the neck of the bottle is very narrow, you should be able to insert the plants without difficulty. If you cannot get your hand into the bottle, use implements such as those shown to lower the plants into position. Add another layer of charcoal and gravel or expanded clay granules around the bases of the plants.
3. After tamping the compost around the roots (use a cotton reel on the end of a cane if necessary), mist the plants and compost. If necessary, direct the spray to remove compost adhering to the sides of the bottle. This type of open-topped bottle will require careful watering. Place it in good light, but away from direct sun as the plants may easily be scorched through the glass.

Abdominal pain

This can be caused by indigestion, colic or wind, and antacids or charcoal tablets will help to relieve the symptoms quickly. Anyone suffering from abdominal pain accompanied by diarrhea, vomiting or fever should be seen by a doctor.

Bad breath

Bad breath may simply be the result of smoking or eating spicy foods, but can also be caused by gum disease. Cleaning teeth regularly and using dental floss will ensure the health of gums and, with the use of antiseptic mouth washes, the problem should disappear. If gums are not the problem, there may be a digestive disorder and you should seek the advice of a doctor.

Chickenpox

In the first few days a slight fever may occur, which can be treated with paracetamol. Try to prevent a child from scratching the spots, as this may lead to infection. A daily bath or shower will prevent the spots from becoming infected, and calamine lotion applied afterwards will help to reduce and relieve the itching.

Colds

Resting as much as possible and taking plenty of fluids will help to clear up a cold quickly. Aspirin or paracetamol will help to reduce the discomfort and lower fever, and medicines containing decongestants will ease congestion.

The herbalists’ traditional standby is an infusion of equal amounts of peppermint (Memiku piperita),elderilower (Sumbucus nigra) and yarrow (Achillea millefolium). Taken hot just before going to bed, this will induce a sweat, and if the cold is caught early enough, may stop it altogether.

Cold sores

After the initial infection, the virus that causes cold sores lies dormant in nerve cells until, under the right conditions, it re-activates and causes the familiar blistering. The blisters are highly contagious, so avoid touching them as the virus can easily be transferred. Cold-sore creams are available from chemists (drugstores). They should be applied when the symptoms of prickling start, but before blisters appear.

Constipation

Lack of dietary fiber and exercise, and an insufficient fluid intake can cause constipation. Eat plenty of foods containing bran, whole meal (wholegrain) bread, vegetables, pulses and fruits. If the problem persists, it would be advisable to see a doctor.

ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE

The main launches of alternative medicine are: acupuncture, the ancient Chinese practice of inserting needles into the body to restore the balance of vital energy, which can be used for a wide range of conditions, including headaches, sprains and even strokes. The others are osteopathy and chiropractic, which involve the manipulation of bones and joints; and homeopathy, which takes into account the patient as a whole rather than just the physical symptom and treats them accordingly. You may wish to try some of the homeopathic remedies, available at many chemists (drugstores) and health food shops, for nesting simple complaints at home, but for a full diagnosis of a serious complaint, it is essential to see a qualified homeopathic doctor.

If you do try alternative medicine for treating more serious conditions, let both your orthodox doctor and the alternative practitioner know about each other. Tell each of them what the other has prescribed and about any medicines or treatments you are already having. Make sure you see a fully qualified practitioner before embarking on any new treatment.

Convulsions

Convulsions usually affect small children and are often the result of a high fever. These are known as febrile convulsions, and will only last for a few minutes at a time. Reduce the child’s temperature by sponging with tepid water. Once the convulsion has passed, paracetamol elixir will help to reduce the fever. Always call a doctor even when the convulsion has stopped.

Coughs

Numerous cough remedies are available, depending on the type of cough, ask your pharmacist for advice. Whichever treatment you use, if a cough does not improve within a few days, seek professional help, especially for children. Breathing in steamy air can help to loosen phlegm, and inhaling a few drops of eucalyptus oil in a bowl of hot water can have a cleansing effect.

This is an area where herbs are of special benefit; if in doubt get qualified treatment. Choose from one or a mixture of the following, taken as warm infusions. Coltsfoot (Tictsilagofatfara), one of the best cough remedies, particularly for irritating, spasmodic coughs, will soothe, loosen mucus and reduce the spasm. llyssop(1-1,tssopus officinalis) is a calming and relaxing expectorant for a cough that is associated with restlessness and irritation. For a harsh, dry and painful cough always include marshmallow (Althea ojicinalis) in a mixture, to ease the soreness. Thyme (Thymus valgaris) is powerfully antiseptic and relieves a dry cough linked with a respiratory infection. As an expectorate, white horehound (Manubiunt valgare) frees up thick, sticky mucus.

Aromatherapy oils used in a steam inhalation can help a cough do its job mote effectively; they can be chosen to soothe the lining of the air passages, fight infection if needed, and loosen mucus to make it easier to be removed. Soothing oils include benzoin and lavender; thyme and eucalyptus are antiseptic; and frankincense or marjoram increase expectoration. Choose a blend that you like the smell of. Essential oils have an ancient link with water and have been used since classical times.

Diarrhea

Loose, frequent bowel movements can happen as a short term reaction to infection, inflammation or food poisoning, and as such are quite a positive, cleansing action. A common experience is holiday diarrhea, and this is usually a response to exposure to unfamiliar bacteria.

As a herbal treatment if mild food poisoning or infection has upset the bowels, try eating garlic as a natural gut disinfectant. Agrimony (Aggiimontacapawria), astringent and healing to the inflamed and swollen membrane lining the gut, is helpful in mild gastro-enteritis. Chamomile, (Chamomillarecutiut), one of the first herbs for many digestive disorders, is calming and anti-inflammatory, and so reduces the impact of tension on the digestive tract. Meadowsweet (Filipenduio ulmaria) will help to settle an acidic stomach. Ribwort (Amigo lanceolaut) has excellent toning, soothing and healing properties for use in diarrhea from many causes where there is inflammation. Thyme (Thymuscalgaris) will fight infections and improve digestion generally, settling churning, loose bowels and killing harmful bacteria.

Massage of the abdomen with antiseptic and relaxing oils like chamomile, lavender and neroli can ease diarrhea caused by minor upsets and also by anxiety and nervousness. Eucalyptus can be used in the same way if an infection is definitely suspected as the cause. Add fennel or ginger if there are griping pains with the diarrhea. For all these oils, dilute to 3 per cent in a base oil.

Causes of diarrhea vary, some foods have a laxative effect naturally, for instance prunes or figs, so over indulgence will give temporary diarrhea. Stress and anxiety often increase peristalsis and hurry bowel contents through. Repeated diarrhea may indicate more complex digestive problems and should be treated professionally. Prolonged diarrhea, especially in young children, can be quite serious as it causes dehydration; ensure adequate fluid intake and seek professional advice.

A simple yet dramatically effective rehydration drink can be made by dissolving 5 ml/1 tsp salt and 15 ml/ 1 tbsp sugar in 600 m1/I pt/21/2 cups of boiled water. Keep in the refrigerator in a screw-topped bottle and give small amounts frequently, use for a short time only.

Earache

This can be the result of a heavy cold, or of an infection of the inner or outer ear causing pain and deafness. Aspirin or paracetamol will help the pain. See a doctor if fluid builds up behind the ear causing it to rupture and the fluid to seep out.

Hot compresses over the ear are the most effective home herbal treatment; chamomile (Chamontitla recutita) maybe used as an infusion for this purpose. Taking garlic internally will help to reduce any catarrh and fight infection. If on professional examination the eardrum is not perforated, then crush some garlic into 5 m1/1 tsp of olive oil; this is warmed to blood temperature and a few drops gently inserted into the ear for a local antibiotic.

Two very good essential oils to draw the inflammation outwards as hot compresses are chamomile and lavender; or try a combination of both. The pungency of garlic and other bulbs and fruits, speeds up the metabolism and acts as an antiseptic.

Ear ache in children

Ear aches, especially in children, need to be treated quickly as an infection within the middle ear can be both painful and damaging. Speedy home help can be very useful to avoid these problems, but get medical help if the ear ache worsens or persists.

Eye infections

Conjunctivitis is a common eye infection that results in sticky eyelids and sore, bloodshot eyes. Make up a dilute solution of 1 part bicarbonate of soda (baking soda) to 20 parts of boiled and then cooled water, and use cotton-wool (absorbent cotton) swabs to gently ease the sticky ‘glue’ from the eyelids. Always use a fresh swab on each eye.

Food poisoning

The sufferer should have plenty of rest and only be given fluids for 24 hours. With an adult, call a doctor if the condition does not improve within this period. Food poisoning can be more serious with children and the elderly, so they should be watched carefully. Call a doctor straight away if a baby or young child is suffering from sickness and diarrhea.

Hay fever

Hay fever symptoms can be similar to those of a common cold. Antihistamine medicines can be prescribed by your doctor, and air purifiers in the house can help to reduce airborne irritants.

Headaches

A doctor should be seen for long-lasting, acute and recurring headaches, as they could be caused by another ailment. However, a rest in a quiet, and possibly darkened, room, a cold compress on the forehead and an analgesic will be sufficient to deal with most headaches.

Indigestion

This can be caused by eating too large a meal or rich and spicy foods, or by eating in a hurry or just before going to bed. For immediate relief take antacids. Alternatively, 2.5 ml/1/2 tsp of bicarbonate of soda (baking soda) dissolved in a glass of water will relieve indigestion.

Herbal teas may well sort out indigestion. Choose from the following. Chamomile (Chamomilla recutita) relieves the effects of over-eating, and being in a stressed state. Lemon balm settles a churning stomach due to nervous indigestion, whether related to meals or not. Meadowsweet is good for acid indigestion, especially if accompanied by some looseness in the bowels. Peppermint (Meruha piperita) is good for indigestion coupled with flatulence and bloated abdomen, or even nausea. Also think of taking slippery elm (Minus fiduct) if indigestion pains are persistent, either 5 ml/1 tsp of the powder thoroughly blended in a cupful of water, or the pure tablets, with one or more meals, to soothe the stomach.
A warm compress of some essential oils, including chamomile or lavender, may give some relief. For mild indigestion, try gently massaging a 2 per cent dilution of either of these into the abdomen.

Influenza

The symptoms of influenza often include fever, aching muscles, nausea, headaches, a cough, a sore throat and a running nose. A doctor may prescribe antibiotics to prevent a secondary infection from causing additional problems. Otherwise, rest in bed, plenty of fluids and an analgesic: taken every 4 hours should help.

Note: the first symptoms of meningitis can be similar to those of influenza. If the symptoms shown are accompanied by vomiting, a stiff and sore neck and joints, a skin rash, bruising or some patchiness of the skin and an aversion to bright lights, call a doctor at once.

Insomnia

Irregular working hours, depression, stress or being in an unfamiliar room can lead to sleeplessness. A doctor can prescribe drugs to help, but try to restrict their use as it is easy to become dependent on them.

A milky drink before going to bed can be relaxing, avoid alcohol and stimulants, such as coffee and tea, as these will all only exacerbate the problem. A walk during the day in fresh air and a warm bath before going to bed may also help.

Measles

All children should be immunized against measles, but can suffer from the disease before then if they come into contact with an infected person. A blocked nose, fever and conjunctivitis are the first symptoms, followed a few days later by a red, blotchy rash spreading from the head down wards. Call your doctor to see whether the child should be examined. Otherwise, give plenty of fluids and paracetamol elixir to reduce the fever.

Mumps

This is a viral infection of the parotid glands, which are situated just in front of and below the ear. Discomfort and fever can be reduced by giving either paracetamol or aspirin, or paracetamol elixir to young children. The virus is usually infectious for up to 6 days before the swelling appears, and for 10 days after the onset of the swelling. Adult men can suffer from swollen testes and should visit a doctor.

Nausea and vomiting

The remedy of first choice is probably ginger (Zingher officinalis); either take frequent sips of a weak tea, or 10 drops of tincture in a little water, or chew a small piece of fresh ginger. Another possibility, say, for travel sickness, is to chew a little crystallized ginger, or drink flat ginger ale. Other potentially useful herbs to settle the stomach are chaitunnile (Chamomilla recurita), croon balm (Melissa officinalis) and peppermint (Mentha piperita); try weakish herb teas. All these herbs aid digestion and so can help to sort out the causes of nausea as well as the symptoms themselves.
Causes of nausea or vomiting can usually be linked to specific things, eating too much rich food, or drinking too much alcohol, anxiety or travel are common triggers. Continual feelings of nausea indicate greater disturbance; again this may be obvious as in 1110Minp, sickness of pregnancy. Where the cause is not obvious, and if symptoms are not quickly cleared up with self help, get medical advice as soon as possible. Children in particular can easily become dehydrated.

Occupational hazards

Many occupations involve excessive use of the voice, e.g. teaching, and sore throats are common place. The regular use of herbal gargles can ease this discomfort, and help you prevent loss of voice or an actual infection. Keep the throat moist by drinking liquids.

Parasites

At one time or another, most children and some adults suffer from parasites.
Fleas: are usually passed on to their host by cats, birds or other pets, or in infected bedding, carpets or upholstery. Treat animals with a veterinary insecticide. Where flea bites have occurred on your skin, use an antiseptic wash to prevent infection. Spray throughout the house with a flea killer and vacuum thoroughly.

Head lice: these are tiny brown insects with 6 legs. They feed on blood and lay eggs (known as nits) which are attached to the base of the hair shaft. They are usually found behind the ears and cause irritation. If head lice are detected, the whole family should be treated with insecticidal shampoo.

Tapeworm: eggs can be seen in feces. Consult your doctor, who will prescribe a suitable medicine.

Threadworms: live in the lower bowel and lay eggs around the anus, causing itchiness. The eggs are minute, but occasionally a fine, thread-like worm may be seen around the anus or on bedding. A doctor will prescribe a suitable medicine to eradicate them.

Ticks: these live in long grass and will latch on to humans and animals to suck blood. Remove with tweezers, using a rocking motion to release them then wipe the area with an antiseptic.

Sore throats

With increased airborne pollution, smoky, dry atmospheres in air-conditioned buildings and so on, sore throats are more and more common. The irritation can range from an annoying tickle to a rasping soreness, and may be linked to other infections. Where the throat inflammation, or pharyngitis, also extends down to the larynx, the voice may be affected.

If possible, use the following herbs as tinctures for gargling; if unavailable then use cooled infusions: agrimony (Agrimorda eupatoria), sage (Salviaofficinalis) and thyme (Thymus vulgaris) are all astringent, toning up the membranes, the latter two also being quite antiseptic. For a more powerful effect try using a tincture of myrrh (Cutraniphura mulmol), together with one or more of the others. If making infusions, add two liquorice sticks to give a more soothing effect, or else use marshmallow (Althea officinalis) leaf in equal amounts with the other herb(s).

With essential oils such as benzoin or thyme, use steam inhalations. One drop only of essential oil of lemon on2.5 ml(1/2, us!) of honey acts as a local antiseptic, as well as being soothing.

It is likely that you will want to have some professional help for many home improvement projects. The experts can help you solve design problems, make sure you satisfy the requirements of the building regulations and stop you falling foul of your local government planning committee. They can also organize and manage large scale projects in a way that no home owner with a frill-rime jog could hope to do. Which experts you call in and what you get them to do for you depends on the project concerned.

You are most likely to call on the services of an architect or a building surveyor if you are building a home extension, converting a loft (attic) or carrying out major internal alterations to your house. Apart from that, many jobs around the home, such as replacing tiles on the roof, can be done safely and thoroughly by the home owner. If major repairs or renovation work is needed however, it is always worth obtaining a quote train a contractor before starting the project yourself.

While waiting for government approval, get renders(bids) for the work from contractors, prepare contracts, devise work schedules and supervise work on site. Architects and surveyors will usually charge a percentage of the project cost as their fee.

If you are planning a loft (attic) conversion, a conservatory, replacement windows, or a kitchen or bathroom refit, you can call in firms who specialize in each of these areas. Since each may offer a complete package, from computer aided design to completion, they may be very tempting to employ. However, this area is very much one of ‘buyer beware’. If you decide to use this route, try to find a firm that either comes with a personal recommendation or is prepared to put you in touch with several satisfied customers. Read the contract offered by the firm in detail, querying any unclear terms and, above all, do not part with any money in advance.

Calling in professional help with your home improvements raises a few questions, since you are effectively handing over the work to a third party. You need to keep control over the job to ensure you get the results you want. If you need contractors to carry out the work for you, decide first of all whether you want a main contractor to run the entire project and bring in his or her own specialist subcontractors, rooters, plasterers, plumbers, electricians and so on, for individual parts of the job.

The alternative is to employ those sub-contractors yourself for the parts of the job that are beyond your abilities. As always, the best way of finding contractors and subcontractors is by personal recommendation. If you are employing an architect on your project, he or she may be able to recommend firms in your area.

Other ways of finding contractors include local newspaper advertisements, telephone directories and trade associations, which will send lists of their members working in your area. One last method involves looking round your area for houses where projects similar to yours are being carried out. Knock at the door and ask the owner how the work is going; people cannot resist discussing things if they are going well.

What a home improvement project will cost is of prime importance to every householder. If you are doing the job yourself, make contact with all the relevant local trade suppliers builders and other specialist merchants, plus second hand outlets such as salvage yards, and explain to them what you are doing and what your requirements are. Some projects will be easier to price than others, but suppliers will generally be eager to help you estimate costs if there is an order in it for them.

Don’t forget about hire (rental) shops for the equipment not included in your do-it-yourself toolkit. It is also worth hiring (or even better, buying) heavy duty versions of your existing power tools, which are likely to be burnt out by the sort of use they will get on a major improvement project. If you are employing an architect, he or she will be responsible for obtaining costs for the job. If you are putting the entire job in the hands of builders, they will be responsible for pricing the job and for buying all the materials.

Never employ any contractors on a home-improvement project without a contract, however simple. This will give both parties a clear description of what the job involves and who is responsible for what. Above all, it will give each party the protection of the law if the other breaks its terms. A simple job probably needs no more than a letter of agreement. This should include a description of the work to be done, the price, the agreed starting and finishing dates and details of how payments will be made. On more complex jobs, a contractor’s derailed quotation plus your signature will constitute a valid contract. A builder will save you the trouble of hiring specialist equipment unlikely to be found in many a home owner’s toolkit.

No plant can survive without water, yet more plants probably die from overwatering than from under watering. Getting a grip on this simple procedure is one of the essentials of good plant care in the home. There are no fixed ‘rules’ about watering. How much a plant needs, and how often, depends not only on the plant but also the kind of pot (clay pots need watering more often than plastic ones), the compost (potting soil), (peat-based composts retain more water than loam-based), and the temperature and humidity of the environment.

When you water, fill the pot to the brim, dribbles are not sufficient. If the root ball has completely dried out, water may run straight through, down the inside of the pot, in which case stand the pot in a bucket of water until the air bubbles stop rising. After watering, always check whether surplus water is sitting in the saucer or cache-pot. This will not matter if there are pebbles or marbles to keep the bottom of the pot out of contact with the moisture, but otherwise you must tip out the extra water. Failure to tip outstanding water is the most common cause of problems. With just a few exceptions, if you leave most ordinary houseplants standing in water for a long period, they will probably die.

For easy and convenient watering, choose a watering can that is well balanced to hold and has a long, narrow spout that makes it easy to direct the water to the compost (potting soil) rather than over the plant.

Examine the pots daily if possible; appearance alone can be a guide. Loam based composts look paler when dry than when moist. A dry surface does not mean that the compost is dry lower down, but, if it looks damp, you will know that you do not need to water. The touch test is useful for peat based compost. Press a finger into the surface; you will know immediately if it feels very dry or very wet. The bell test is useful for clay pots. Push a cotton reel on to a garden cane and tap the pot: a dull thud indicates moist compost; a clear ring suggests dry compost.

Tap water is far from ideal for watering, but most houseplants will tolerate it. If the water is hard (has a high calcium or magnesium content), however, you need to make special arrangements for plants that react badly to alkaline soil or compost. These include aphelandras, azaleas, hydrangeas, orchids, rhododendrons and saint paulias. Rain water is usually recommended for these plants, but a good supply is not always available. If your tap water is only slightly hard, simply filling the watering cans and allowing the water to stand overnight may be sufficient. For harder water, try boiling it; part of the hardness will be deposited in the form of scale, and you can use the water once it has cooled.

Just a few plants tolerate standing with their roots in water, like this cyperus. With these you can add water to the saucer or outer container, but never do this unless you know the plant grows naturally in marshy places.

HOLIDAY-CARE TIPS

• Porous wicks are sold for insertion into the base of a plant pot, which is then stood above a reservoir of water. You can make your own porous wicks by cutting a piece of capillary matting (available at all good garden centers) into strips, as shown above. Make sure that the wicks and compost (potting soil) are moist before you go on holiday, and that the wick is pushed well into the compost.
• If it is summer, stand as many plants as possible outdoors. Choose a shady, sheltered position, and plunge the pots up to their rims in the soil. Apply a thick mulch of chipped hark or peat over the pots to keep them cool and to conserve moisture. Provided that you water them well before you leave, most plants will survive a week like this.
• Move plants that are too delicate to go outdoors into a few large groups in a cool position out of direct sunlight.

Hydroculture

Watering correctly is an acquired skill, but, with practice, you will come to learn exactly how much or how little water your plants need. If you do find watering difficult or time consuming, however, other alternatives would be to use self watering containers, or to try the technique of hydroculture (also known as hydroponics) which will enable you to grow plants successfully with the minimum of attention. Hydroculture is a method of growing plants without soil or compost (potting soil). Watering is normally only necessary every fortnight, and feeding is only a twice yearly task.

You can buy plants that are already growing hydroponically, but, once you realize how easy hydroculture plants are to look after, you will probably want to start off your own plants from scratch. Not all plants respond well to hydroculture, so you may need to experiment, but the range of suitable plants is surprisingly wide, and includes amaryllis, aspidistra, some begonias, ficus, saint paulia and yucca, as well as cacti and succulents.

Routine care is very simple, wait until the water indicator (see step 3) registers minimum, but do not water immediately, allow an interval of two or three days before filling again. Always use tap water because the special ion-exchange fertilizer used for hydroculture (available from garden centres) depends on the chemicals in tap water to function effectively. The water must be at room temperature. As there is no compost (potting soil), cold water has an immediate chilling effect on the plant, a common cause of failure with hydroculture. Make a note of when you replace the fertilizer, and renew it every six months. Some systems use the fertilizer in a ‘battery’ fitted within the special hydroculture pot, but otherwise you can just sprinkle it on to be washed in with a little water.

• Choose a young plant and wash the roots free of all traces of compost (potting soil).Place the plant in a suitable sized container with slatted or mesh sides.
• Pack expanded clay granules around the roots, being careful to damage the roots as little as possible.
• Insert the inner pot into a larger, watertight container, first placing a layer of clay granules on the base to raise the inner pot to a level of about 12 mm/1/2 in below the rim. Insert a water level tube (available from garden centers). If you cannot find one specially designed to indicate the actual water level, use one that indicates how moist the roots are.
• Pack with more clay granules to secure the inner pot and water indicator. Sprinkle special hydroculture fertilizer (available from garden centers) over the granules.
• Wash the fertilizer down as you water to the maximum level on the indicator. If the indicator does not show an actual level, add a volume of water equal to one quarter of the capacity of the container and only water again when the indicator shows dry. A few months on and the house plant is flourishing.

If you find watering a chore, self-watering pots may be the answer. The moisture is drawn up into the compost (potting soil) through wicks from a reservoir below, and you will need to water much less frequently.

Fresh ingredients are essential to a healthy, balanced diet, and we are now encouraged to eat at least five portions of fresh fruit and vegetables a day. Vitamin C is found almost exclusively in fruit and vegetables and because it cannot be stored by the body, levels need to be topped up continually.

Fruit and vegetables are also extremely rich in fiber, particularly when eaten with the skin in tact. High-protein foods such as meat, game, poultry and eggs contain many other essential nutrients. Use frozen produce when fresh is not available; it is perfectly acceptable from a nutritional point of view.

Fresh ingredients

Fresh Fruit

Fruits are very versatile and can be enjoyed raw or cooked, on their own or as part of a recipe. They are also good sources of vitamins and minerals, particularly vitamin C. A piece of fresh fruit makes a quick and easy, nutritious snack at any time of the day. Try topping whole wheat breakfast cereals with some fruit such as raspberries for a tasty and nutritious start to the day.

Fresh Vegetables

Vegetables are nutritious and are valuable sources of vitamins and minerals, some being especially rich in vitamins A, C and E. Vegetables also contain some dietary fiber and those that are particularly good sources include broccoli, brussel sprouts, cabbage, carrots, fennel, okra, parsnips, spinach, spring greens (collard) and sweet corn. Vegetables are also very versatile and many can be eaten either raw or cooked. Add vegetables to dishes such as soups, stews, casseroles, stir-fries and salads, or simply serve them on their own, raw or lightly cooked and tossed in a little lemon juice.

Potatoes

Potatoes are one of the most commonly eaten vegetables in the world and are valuable in terms of nutrition. They are high in carbohydrate, low in fat and contain some Vitamin C and dietary fiber. Wash old and new potatoes thoroughly and cook them with their skins on, for example baked, boiled and roasted. The flavor will be just as delicious and you will be getting extra fiber.

Potatoes are very versatile and are used in many dishes. Mashed potatoes (with their skins left on, of course) make an ideal topping for pies and bakes. For roast potatoes use a minimum amount of oil, and if you like to make chips, leave the skins on and cut the chips thickly using a knife. With baked and mashed potatoes avoid adding high fat butter, soured cream or cheese and instead use skimmed milk, reduced fat hard cheese and herbs to add flavor.

Fresh Beans and Other Pulses

There are many varieties of fresh beans and pulses available, either fresh or canned, including peas, broad (lava)beans and runner beans, and more unusual ones such as fresh flageolet beans, black-eyed (peas) beans and butter (wax) beans. Fresh corn on the cob and sweet corn are also popular.

All are good sources of dietary fiber and contain other nutrients including vitamins and minerals. Beans and pulses are very versatile and can be used in many dishes including hot and cold salads, stir-fries, casseroles, pasta sauces, soups and curries. Some varieties, such as sugar-snap peas and mangetouts (snow peas) can be eaten either raw or lightly cooked.

Eggs

Virtually a complete food and extremely versatile, eggs provide protein, iron, zinc and vitamins A, B and E.

Fish

Increasingly research points to the great benefits gained from a diet high in fish. All fish is rich in protein, B vitamins and minerals; white fish is very low in fat. Oily fish, such as sardines, mackerel, herring, tuna, trout and salmon, also provide vitamins A and D and Omega 3 fatty acids, which are believed to be beneficial in helping to prevent coronary heart disease.

Poultry

A good source of quality protein, B vitamins and some iron, poultry is also low in fat, particularly if the skin is removed.

Meat and Game

Although the general health advice is to moderate your intake of red meat, thus reducing the amount of saturated fat in your diet, red meat is still the best source of readily absorbed iron, zinc and B vitamins. Meat today is much leaner than it used to be, and it fits the profile for a healthy diet if it is cooked with low-fat cooking methods.

Storing

Because nutrients in fresh foods, especially valuable vitamins, deteriorate as food ages it is important to always buy the freshest and best quality available. Storing the food correctly at home will also ensure that the minimum of nutrients are lost before they are eaten. Whilst some fruit and vegetables can be kept at room temperature, they will not last for long in a hot kitchen and should be stored in a cooler environment. Quickly perishable foods such as meat, poultry, fish and dairy products should be stored in a refrigerator.
A freezer is useful for keeping many fresh foods longer term. You can buy them when they are plentiful and cheap for the freezer, using them when they become out of season or more expensive in the shops. Follow the freezer manufacturer’s instructions for storing and blanch fruit and vegetables as required.

Storing Fresh Fruits

Those fruits that can be kept at room temperature while still unripe include apricots, kiwi fruits, mangoes, nectarines, papayas, peaches, pears, pineapples and plums. Once ripe, refrigerate and eat within 2-3 days.

Fruits that can be stored at cool room temperature include apples (although they will be crisper if refrigerated), bananas, dates, grapefruit and oranges. Apples can be kept at room temperature for a few days, dates for several weeks, and grapefruit and oranges for up to a week. Unless you intend to eat them on the day of purchase, refrigerate fully ripe and perishable fresh fruits. These include berries, cherries, figs, grapes, lemons, limes, melons, pomegranates and tangerines. They can be kept refrigerated for 2-3 days.

Storing Fresh Vegetables

Like fruits, there are some vegetables that can be stored at room temperature. A dark, cool place (about 10°C/50°F) with good ventilation is ideal, however. Suitable vegetables are garlic, onions, potatoes and sweet potatoes, swede and pumpkin can be kept for about 2 months. Store tomatoes at room temperature until they are ripe, after that, refrigerate.
Perishable vegetables should be refrigerated. Some, such as peas or sweet corn, should be used quickly, while others like carrots or cabbage, can be kept for a longer period. In most cases, do not wash the vegetable until just before using. Celery, frisee, escarole, spring greens (collard), herbs, lettuce, spinach and watercress should be washed before storage.

Cold Storage

All foods kept in the refrigerator or freezer should be well wrapped or stored in sealed containers. This preserves flavor and moisture, and prevents the flavors and odors of other, stronger foods being transferred. It is essential to keep raw meat and poultry well wrapped as their drippings can transfer bacteria to other foods.

Perishable fresh foods, such as meats, poultry, fish and seafood, eggs, cheese and other dairy products, and many fruits and vegetables must be kept refrigerated at a temperature ofI-5°C/35-40°F. For longer storage, many can also be frozen at 18°C/0°F or lower. Cooked leftovers must also be refrigerated or frozen. Use a special thermometer to check temperatures; integral thermostats often give false readings over time. If temperatures are too high, food will spoil rapidly

The paintbrush is the most versatile and widely used tool for applying paint. Choose the brush size to match the surface that you are painting. For example, for painting glazing bars (muntins) on windows or narrow moldings on a door, use a slim brush or perhaps a cutting-in (sash) brush if you are painting up to an unpainted surface, such as glass, where a near edge is needed. For expansive, flat areas, select larger brush for good coverage. Get rid of any loose bristles in a new brush by flicking it vigorously across the palm of your hand before using it. Wash previously used brushes that have been stored unwrapped to remove any dust or other debris from the bristles, and leave them to dry out before using them to apply a solvent based paint.

Paint rollers are generally used to apply water based (latex) paints to large, flat areas such as walls and ceilings. Choose a sleeve with a short pile for painting plaster, a medium pile for painting embossed or textured wall coverings, or a long pile for sculpted surfaces such as those created with textured finishes (texture paints).Rollers can also be used to apply solvent based (oil) paint to flat surfaces such as flush doors, but tend to leave a distinctive ‘orange-peel’ texture rather than the smooth finish left by a brush.

There are some drawbacks with paint rollers: they cannot paint right up to internal comers or wall/ ceiling angles, so these need to be painted first with a brush or pad. They can also splash if ‘driven’ too fast, and the sleeves take a good deal of time and effort to clean thoroughly, especially if they have been used for a long period and there is dried paint in the pile.

Paint pads tend to apply less paint per coat than either a brush or a roller, so an additional coat may be needed in some circumstances, but they make it easy to apply paint smoothly and evenly with no risk of brush marks.

PREPARING THE PAINT

1. Tie a length of string or wire across the mouth of the paint kettle. To load the brush, dip it into the paint, but only to about one third of the bristle depth. An overloaded brush will cause drips, and paint will run down the handle. Use the stung or wire to scrape excess paint from the bristles.
2. Apply the paint to the wood in long, sweeping strokes, along the grain, until the brush begins to run dry. Load up the brush with more paint and apply it to the next area. Blend the paint using short, light strokes, again along the grain direction, so that no join is visible.
3. Repeat this process while working your way across the whole area to be painted, always blending the edges of adjacent areas together using light brushstrokes.
4. At edges and external corners, let the brush run off the edge to avoid a build up of paint on the corner. Repeat the process for the opposite edge.

USING A BRUSH

1. Wipe the lid to remove any dust, then prise it off with a wide lever such as the back via table knife to avoid damage to the lip. Decant the paint into a paint kettle or small bucket. This will be easier to kindle than a full container.
2. Remove any paint skin from partly used containers. Strain the paint into the paint kettle through a piece of old stocking or tights (panty hose), or a piece of muslin (cheesecloth), to filter.

USING A ROLLER

1. Pour some paint (previously strained if from an old can) into the roller tray until the paint level just laps tip to the sloping section. Slide a sleeve on to the roller.
2. Brush a band of paint about 5 cm/ 2 in wide into internal corners and wall/ceiling angles, around doors and windows, and above skirting (baseboards).
3. Load the roller sleeve with paint by running it down the sloping section of the paint, then roll it tip and down the slope to remove the excess.
4. Start applying the paint in a series of overlapping diagonal strokes to ensure complete coverage of the surface. Continue until the sleeve runs dry.
5. Re-load the sleeve and tackle the nest section in the same way. Finish off by blending the areas together, working parallel 1’0 corners and edges.

USING A PAINT PAD

1. Pour sonic paint into the special applicator tray and load the pad by running it backwards and forwards over the ridged trading roller.
2. On walls, apply the paint in a series of overlapping parallel bands. Use a small pad or a special edging pad (see step 4) to paint right up to corners or angles.
3. Use smaller pads for painting narrow areas such as moldings on doors or ginning bars (muntins) on windows, brushing out the paint along the direction of the grain.
4. Special edging pads are designed for painting right up to internal angles, and leave small wheels which guide the pad along the adjacent surface as you work.
5. Some larger pads can be fitted to an extension pole to make it easier to paint ceilings and high walls. Make sure than the pad is attached securely.

USING AEROSOL PAINT

Aerosol paints and varnishes are ideal for hard to decorate surfaces such as wicker work. Always follow the maker’s instructions when using them.

We all know of the need to reduce the level of environmental pollution. No matter how insignificant a small action may seem, such as placing a jar in are cycling bin, switching off a light when it is not needed or mending a dripping tap (faucet), if everyone made an effort, the waste of vital resources could be drastically reduced.

Everyday recycling

Buy re-fill containers to fill up bottles and minimize the number of unwanted plastic containers ending up on landfill sites. Separate your household waste into groups: vegetable waste which can be composted in the garden; items that you can take to is local recycling centers such as paper, card (cardboard) and newspaper, metal drinks and food cans and tin foil, glass jars and bottles; and finally any waste which cannot be recycled and needs to go in the dustbin (trash can).

Re-use old envelopes and cut up old letters and scrap paper for writing lists and messages. Keep old margarine tubs to store nails, screws and small fittings, and use jars or bottles to keep scraps of ribbon, string and elastic together the latter containers are especially convenient as they enable you to see at a glance the contents inside. Keep a large bag in which to place recyclable waste such as cans, jars and bottles until you can take them to the recycling centre.

Home ideas

It takes the energy of 1 gallon/4.5 liters of petrol (gasoline) to make just thirty house bricks. Use reclaimed bricks when building to help save the earth’s resources and to give a traditional weathered look to houses, gardens and patios at the same time. The use of reclaimed architectural materials such as floorboards, baths and windows looks good and rarely costs more than the modern equivalent.

Using architectural salvage not only recycles unwanted items, but also adds character to a home. When buying woods, choose only those that you are satisfied come from sustainable sources. Avoid hard woods cut from tropical rainforests, including teak and mahogany, the do-forestation caused by the removal of such woods results in rare species being forced into extinction, and massive forest fires which contribute to global warming. There are plenty of sustainable alternatives, with pine, beech and rubber wood being among the best. These woods can be stained, waxed or varnished to darken them or even painted to achieve a range of attractive effects. To save on new paper, buy toilet paper and kitchen paper (paper towels) that contains a high percentage of recycled material, and look for ‘non-chlorine-bleach’ labels as the use of bleach increases pollution.

Avoid buying aerosols that contain CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons). These destroy the ozone layer, resulting in dangerous ultra-violet radiation from the sun penetrating to the earth. Foam blown plastics (used for food cartons), air conditioners and some refrigerators also release CFCs into the atmosphere, so bear this in mind when buying. There are so many excellent alternatives to all these products that there is no excuse for buying them.
You can also greatly reduce your consumption of fuel by insulating your home properly. Good insulation saves money on heating bills as well as reducing the amount of pollution, so it is a good idea for both reasons. The burning of fossil fuels also creates ‘acid rain’ which kills forests and eats away at buildings that form our architectural heritage, and should be reduced as much as possible.

Electrical appliances

When replacing an appliance such as a refrigerator, freezer, cooker or washing machine, look for the models that are energy efficient and have ‘economy’ programs. Take your old fridge or freezer for recycling, and to a place where harmful CFCs can he recycled or disposed of safely. For economic running, place the refrigerator and freezer on an outside wall and well away front the cooker or a hot dishwasher. Defrosting the freezer regularly will prevent thick layers of ice from building up, which in turn prevent the freezer from functioning correctly and cause it to use more electricity to maintain a low temperature.

Try to cook in batches when using the oven, by making several dishes at a time and using all the oven space. A microwave oven cooks quickly, and consumes far less energy than a conventional oven. It is ideal for reheating foods which tend to dry up under a grill or in an oven.

If you plan to install a gas central heating system, choose one of the latest energy efficient condensing boilers, as it will save both on fuel bills and on unwanted carbon-dioxide emissions. Also, only operate at dishwasher when you have a full load, and use the ‘economy’ setting for normal soiling.

Heat and light

Avoid wasting heat by fitting thermostatic radiator valves to each radiator, so that you can control the temperature of each mess to suit your needs. Shelves above radiators help to deflect heat back into the room, as well as creating valuable storage space.
Fit thermostatic radiator valves to each radiator to avoid wasting heat. They mean that you can control the temperature of each room separately. Try to use curtains or drapes with special insulating fabric to help keep the heat in a room. Blinds (shades) also act as simple heat barriers, so close them at night for additional insulation. Block gaps under doors and prevent draughts by using ‘sausage’ draught excluders.

To save on the cost of lighting, switch to low energy light bulbs. Although these are more expensive than ordinary bulbs, they last up to six times longer and use approximately75 per cent less energy. Try also to get into the habit of switching off lights as you leave a room. Fitting two way switches in the hallway and on the landing will ensure that you have good lighting while going up and down stairs, but can also switch off the lights when they arc not required.