Archive for the ‘Pet Care’ Category

Pets can give a lot of pleasure. They make good companions for all ages and are an excellent way for children to learn about responsibility and caring for others. Being a deterrent to burglars and an intruder alarm, a family dog also helps to safeguard the home.

Keeping pets involves a lot of responsibility, however, and they can cause accidents and spread disease if not properly looked after. Make sure you know how to care for any animal you own and that whichever member of the family takes on the routine tasks will have enough time and commitment to do the job properly. Bear these points in mind when deciding what sort of pet to bring into the home.

Living with dogs

Dogs interact with humans so well that they soon become a member of the household, demanding their equal share of company and attention to keep them happy and well behaved. As dogs can live for ten to 15 years or even more, owning one is a long-term commitment. Feeds need to be regular, as does exercise. Grooming is necessary to keep the dog’s skin and coat in good condition, and to minimize the amount of hair shed in the house, and with long-haired varieties, this can overtime become more of a chore than a pleasure. Dogs bring dirt and dust into the house, so increasing the amount of housework around them.

Choose the breed carefully to suit your family situation; dogs are bred for certain characteristics and different types can require much more exercise and feeding than others. Most dogs do not like to be left alone for long periods, and some can become destructive in the home. Check on the dog’s likely temperament and if you are buying a puppy try to see both parents.

Training is another important aspect in a dog’s life. Dogs must always be kept under control and well behaved, especially in public. An uncontrollable dog is a potential danger in the home and on the street. If you have any difficulty with training your dog, seek out a training group, where your dog can learn to socialize with other canines and learn to respond to your commands.

Keeping cats

Cats are much more independent than dogs, and require less care and attention. They groom themselves, unless they are long-haired, and often spend a lot of their time on their own. However, when they do want attention, or a nice warm lap to snuggle into, they can be very affectionate and rewarding as pets. They will even play with you, but on their terms and only when they feel like it.

It is wise to get a male cat neutered and a female cat spayed. Males grow into rangy beasts which take to fighting and spraying your property as they mark out their own territory. Females can, and most probably will, start to reproduce at six months of age and can produce two litters a year. Finding good homes for the kittens can become a regular headache. Talk to your local vet about the best time to spay and neuter your pet, if unsure.

Small rodents

Mice, hamsters, guinea pigs and rabbits all have their particular charms. They are generally relatively short-lived, although some rabbits do go on for many years. Although they are much cheaper to keep than either dogs or cats, they all need to be contained in cages, preferably with areas or runs large enough for them to exercise in. Hamsters particularly like toys and wheels to play with and guinea pigs and rabbits benefit from being allowed to run out of doors. Cages should be cleaned weekly.

Many children are wonderfully at ease with pets, but it is a good idea to show them how to hold and handle animals safely.

Lizards

All lizards can and will bite. If bitten by a lizard, do not pull away until the lizard releases its grip. To avoid being bitten, hold the lizard behind the head with one hand and the base of the tail and hind legs with the other.
Give lizards a good drink before transporting them, so that they do not dehydrate. When transporting a lizard long distances, place it in a box, with absorbent padding between the bag and the box. Secure the box firmly after making sure that it has adequate ventilation holes.
If transporting the lizard by any kind of public transport, label the box with the name, address and telephone number of both the sender and title receiver. Attach another label describing the contents of the box, and giving any special instructions for care during the trip.

Snakes

All snakes bite. When handling a snake, support the body evenly, and never make any sudden movements near the head. When picking up a snake always pin its head down with a forked stick, then grasp it behind the head from above. Remember, when a snake decides to strike and bite, it does with extreme rapidity.
If a snake wraps itself around your arm, unwind it while continuing hold the head. When releasing a snake, always let its head go and withdraw your hand quickly.
Snakes should be transported in the same manner as lizards.

Tortoise

When handling tortoises, beware of the sharp claws. Most small tortoises can be picked up as you would hold a sandwich. To transport a tortoise, put it in a moist cloth bag or in a box lined with moist towels. Avoid overcrowding. Always give the tortoise a good soaking before and after the trip to avoid dehydration.

Feeding

Healthy reptiles can fast for long periods without effect. In good condition,they may fast for several months. Reptiles are normally intermittent feeders. Snakes eat twice weekly or less. Lizards eat daily. Scent, particularly for snakes, is important in food selection.
Feeding activity is temperature dependent, and sub-optimal conditions are commonly the cause of fasting. To rectify the situation, increase the environmental temperature or give the reptile warm baths. Or change the diet, change the environment or increase the light. Temperature reduction,vibrations or disturbance of any kind will cause regurgitation.
For carnivores the best diet is a whole animal, since this reproduces their natural diet in the wild.

Tortoises

Lettuce, clover, grass, tomatoes, fruit and cucumber are suitable foods. Some will eat raw fish and meat, which should be supplemented with calcium carbonate at the rate of 1/2 teaspoonful (0.5 gram) per 100 grams of meat fed. Cereals, bread, Farax and tinned dog foods can be tried. However, bread and other cereals should not form the major part of the diet of land tortoises,as they might cause liver disease.

Terrapins

Terrapins will eat chopped meat, heart, liver, fish (whole or in pieces), snails,shrimps, worms, insects, frogs, tadpoles, mealworms and baby mice. Vegetables such as lettuce can be given on alternate days. As with tortoises, meat should be supplemented with calcium.

Small Lizards

The usual diet is earthworms, grasshoppers, slugs, fly larvae and mealworms.

Large Lizards

Feed young mice, small lizards, chopped meat, dog food and raw egg.

Herbivorous Lizards

Provide lettuce, fruit, plants and insects.

Snakes

All snakes are carnivores, and most eat small vertebrates. Some will eat only live prey.

Force Feeding

When force feeding is called for, use a small, 2-millimeter-diameter polyethylene tube attached to a syringe. Gently introduce it into the mouth an:pass it into the food pipe. (It is impossible to go into the windpipe try mistake.) In this way you can feed pulverized whole animal, or canned doe food, minced with egg, or infant foods.

Housing

The type of housing you should provide for a pet reptile depends, of course,on the species you plan to keep. However, there are essential features common to all.
Housing for reptiles must provide a healthy environment, enough space and ventilation for the type and number of specimens and it must be escape-proof. The enclosure must provide privacy and yet be easily accessible for cleaning. Provision should be made for heating and adequate lighting.
Most reptiles will live in an unadorned enclosure with absorbent paper on the floor and a branch and a water bowl. However, if you do wish to a reptile’s environment more natural, a wide variety of substances can be used, such as coarse sand, gravel, large pebbles, pieces of bark, leaf bracken, hollow logs or small branches (to provide privacy). ‘Plants can either be grown in the enclosure or can be grown in pots outside it therefore can be rotated). Make sure plants are non-toxic. Monstera Philodendron are quite suitable.
Water containers should be wide based and of a depth appropriate to animal. Keep the water clean and well away from the heat source.
Have on hand some implements for removing such things as dishes, and uneaten food from the enclosure, such as long tongs or a scoop.
A glass aquarium is very suitable as a reptile enclosure and can be required in various sizes to suit the smaller reptiles. Enclosures made of wood are also suitable, though wood (including chipboard) should be coated with a waterproof varnish for ease of cleaning.
An outside pit gives reptiles some variety. For snakes or monitors the should be 1.5 meters high with a 30-centimeter overhang (of tin. example) projecting horizontally into the centre of the pit. The walls can be made of any material that is escape-proof, such as bricks, concrete, metal or wood. They must be vertical and smooth. To prevent snakes or lizards escaping by burrowing underneath, the walls should extend 60 centimeters into the ground.
Always have a portable cage for quarantining new or sick animals.
Since most reptiles will bathe, the ideal situation is an enclosure contain-ing a large removable shallow dish that will accommodate the whole body of the reptile without overflowing. This may also provide drinking water.
Light Light is very important in the control of activity and physiological function,especially of reproduction, as is explained below.

Special Requirements for Amphibians

Most amphibians are small animals with smooth, moist skins which reproduce by laying eggs in water or moist areas. The eggs hatch from their soft gelatinous covering to a larva stage and later undergo metamorphosis to the adult stage. The commonly kept amphibians include frogs, toads, newts and salamanders (axolotl).
The axolotl is actually the larval form of the Mexican salamander. 20 centimeters in length. It ranges in color from pink to brownish-black. When purchasing an axolotl, ensure that it swims upright and that it uses its gills actively.
Most amphibians do not like to be handled and can be very slippery. The best way to handle them is to place your middle finger between the hind legs and wrap the rest of your hand around the body. Axolotls should be grasped around the head and fore body.
The skin of amphibians should be kept moist and the animal should have access to water at all times. Many amphibians, especially toads, secrete poisonous substances, so it is important to wash your hands after handling.
If amphibians are to be transported it is important that they are kept damp, and have plenty of space and adequate ventilation. Polystyrene boxes containing dampened pieces of moss, grass or foam will retain the moisture and provide protection. Axolotls can be transported in a sealed plastic bag containing one-third water, two-thirds air.
Axolotls can be kept in an aquarium filled to a depth of 20 centimeters with fresh water and kept at 23°C. The aquarium should also contain some rocks or vegetation to make the axolotl feel secure. Newts and frogs can be kept in the . same sort of environment, but it should also contain a half submerged stone, piece of bark or sturdy vegetation for them to climb on.
Axolotls will only feed in the water. Axolotls and newts will eat worms,insects or dog food. Young ones will eat water fleas, white worms, tubifex and sometimes fish food.
Frogs and toads usually like their prey to be moving. They love insects and worms.
A good supply of insects can be caught by hanging a light globe over a funnel which has been placed in a jar. The insects are attracted by the light and fall into the jar via the funnel. (This method is particularly effective on summer nights).

Breeding

Breeding seldom occurs in captivity because the reptile never truly adapt. Breeding activity is dependent on normal environment for species, light, correct temperature, absence of stress and balanced nutriticare all important.

There are three categories of fish suitable for the home aquarium: tropical, coldwater and marine. The marine fish require varying temperatures, from very cold to warm, depending on their natural geographical origin; because of the problems of keeping fish in saline water, they are not as popular as other fish. Tropical and coldwater fish are equally popular. It is important for those unfamiliar with the keeping of fish to read the whole of this chapter before purchasing. Fish are very sensitive and even a few hours in the wrong environment will be courting danger.

Setting up the Aquarium

Thoroughly wash the aquarium, the sand, the rocks, and the ornaments with large quantities of fresh water. Do not use soap or detergents as they are highly toxic to fish.
To wash the gravel, put it in a plastic bag or bucket and add water. Stir the gravel, then drain off the water. When the water stays clear after stirring it is free of debris and the gravel is clean. This will usually take several changes of water. The gravel can then go into the aquarium. Fill the aquarium approximately half to three-quarters full. Pour the water slowly over a plate (or into the cup of your hand) so that it does not disturb the gravel.
Connect tubing from the air pump to any outlets located inside the aquarium, such as under-gravel filters, air stones or canister filters. The canister should be loaded with filter materials and placed in the aquarium before the air line is connected. Install the air pump above the level of the water so that back-flowing water cannot destroy it, or empty the tank, if the pump fails.
Decorations and plants should now be added and arranged in such a way that the equipment is concealed or at least does not detract from the appearance of the aquarium. Live plants should be kept moist from the time you buy them till they are planted.
Add the balance of the water by pouring it slowly into your hand or a cup so that you do not disturb the gravel and plants. Fill the aquarium to near the top, leaving some air space between the water and the cover. Install the outside filter, thermostatic heater and thermometer according to manufacturers’ instructions, and plug in your air pump, power filter and heater. It will take some time for the temperature to stabilize and you may have to adjust your setting. Do not switch on the heater thermostat when it is not immersed in the water.
Water in new aquariums will often turn milky for a day or two. This is caused by a harmless bacterial growth and should disappear naturally. Check the pH and hardness of the water. After your aquarium is operating check the functioning of your equipment and the water conditions again. The temperature of the water for Goldfish should be 22°C. For tropical fish, the temperature should range between 24 and 27°C. Higher temperatures result in a higher metabolic rate in the fish; lower temperatures tend to increase the risk of the disease white spot (or `ich’). If everything is working well, purchase your first few fish.

Water is Heavy

4.5 liters of water weighs more than 4.5 kilograms and when you add the weight of the tank and the gravel, the average weight of the aquarium is more than 4.5 kilograms per 4.5 liters. A 45-liter aquarium, for example, will weigh about 60 kilograms. Its support should therefore be sturdy. Avoid direct sunlight
Most aquarists prefer to avoid exposing their aquariums to direct sunlight. Although it does not affect the health of the fish directly, it tends to promote the rapid growth of algae which is undesirable because it creates unnecessary maintenance problems.

Selecting the Aquarium

When you have decided on the type of fish you want to keep, your next question is how many? These two factors will determine the minimum aquarium size. The rule of thumb for small freshwater fish is to allow 2 liters of water for every centimeter of fish; for marine fish, 10 liters per centimeter. Your first tank should be at least 45 liters, preferably larger. This allows a greater choice of fish and plants and requires less maintenance. A tropical fish tank: Note the healthy appearance of the tank in general.
The capacity of an aquarium can be measured by multiplying the height and width in centimeters and dividing by 1000. This gives the _ tents in liters. Allow for any rocks or ornaments in the aquarium; the:it usually occupy about 10 per cent of the volume.
The height of your tank should be no more than 20 per cent greater than the width, otherwise the surface of the tank will be too small to allow the water to absorb sufficient amounts of oxygen. A rule of thumb is 65 square centimeters of water surface for every 2.5 centimeters of fish length.

Other Necessary Equipment

Cover and Lighting
Covering the aquarium is necessary for several reasons. It saves money by reducing heat loss. By keeping the air temperature above the water the same as the water temperature, the water will stay warmer and will not overwork the heater. The cover also slows down the rate of water loss by evaporation. A cover prevents your fish from jumping out or friendly pets from jumping in. It also stops aerosol insecticides entering the water. A cover also serves as a holder for your lighting.

Thermostatic Heater

Unless you plan to keep only coldwater fish, the aquarium will require a thermostatically controlled heater to maintain the water at a tropical temperature. Heaters vary in cost, accuracy and reliability, but always purchase the best you can afford.

Filtration and Aeration Equipment

The major objective of all filtration systems is clear water plus aeration. If the water circulates from the water surface throughout the aquarium, you will have good aeration. One device used to encourage water circulation is an air stone. Placed on or near the aquarium floor, the porous air stone releases bubbles which push bottom water to the surface and create a circular flow. Because the water will circulate debris from the bottom as well, the air stone should be placed 5 centimeters above the gravel. The force of air rushing to the surface is often coupled to a filter by means of an airlift. The airlift is a tube that confines the air bubbles and uses them to force water through the filter. Filter systems vary in cost and complexity, and it is best to consult the pet shop dealer for advice on the one most suited to your needs.

Sand or Gravel

Whether you choose natural or colored sand it is best to obtain it from your pet store. If the gravel is artificially colored, make sure that it is non-toxic and colorfast. As a general rule you will need approximately 1 kilogram of sand for each 4.5 liters of water in the aquarium.

Ornaments, Rocks and Plants

Driftwood, petrified wood, bamboo cane and non-metallic rocks are generally safe in an aquarium. Metals other than stainless steel can poison your fish. Some objects (coral, limestone and marble, for example) will dissolve in fresh water and thereby change the water chemistry. Plants add color and beauty to an aquarium and, very importantly, they offer areas of retreat for the fish. You can use living plants, artificial plants or both. Live plants have advantages and disadvantages. The advantages: Besides being more natural, they compete with algae for nutrients. Their very presence will help reduce or eliminate algae problems. Along with this, they absorb nitrates and slow down the nitrate build-up. Nitrates are waste products and in large quantities are toxic to fish. Plants are also a food source for a number of fish. The disadvantages: Plants are often difficult to grow, requiring specific water conditions and lighting. Decaying plants increase pollution in the aquarium, so any that turn brown or start to disintegrate should be removed quickly. Plastic plants can relieve that barren time when live plants are establishing themselves.

Water Conditions

The pH level (acidity/alkalinity) The pH level is particularly important for maintaining and breeding fish. Some fish species prefer alkaline water while others prefer acid. pH levels can be altered by chemicals: use sodium biphosphate for increasing acidity/ lowering alkalinity, and sodium bicarbonate for reducing acidity/increasing alkalinity. Excessive alkalinity or acidity for freshwater fish can also be reduced by the use of bottled water. It is best, however, to adapt the fish to the tap water in your community. A pH level between 6.8 and 7 suits most tropical fish; 7 to 7.2 suits Goldfish; and 8 to 8.3 suits most marine fish.

Hardness

Tap water, like natural water, varies in hardness from area to area. `Hardness’ refers to the dissolved salts in the water, mainly those of calcium. sometimes also magnesium. Many tropical fish prefer a relatively soft water. White deposits at the water line are a clear sign of high hardness. Hardness s can be reduced by regularly replacing part of the water with aged tap water—the water is aged by allowing it to stand exposed to the atmosphere for one week. This does not decrease hardness if the tap water itself is hard. Then the water needs to be filtered through peat or Zeocarb 225. An occasional hardness test is a good idea, as sometimes a rock or the gravel in the tank can cause a problem. The hardness level should ideally be below 100 parts per million, except for the few fish species that thrive in hard, alkaline waters. Water can be softened by using an ion exchange resin such as Zeocarb 225. The most logical approach is to remove the hardening factor—that is, the rock, gravel or whatever, from the tank. There is no place for coral or seashells in freshwater tanks because of their hardness factor.

Selecting the Site of the Aquarium

Temperature control is important

Direct sunlight may overheat the aquarium. Overheating can also be caused by closeness to room heaters. Do not place the aquarium close to air conditioning units, open windows or outside doors either. Changes in water temperature greater than 2°C above or 1°C below the optimum temperature for the type of fish you are keeping can cause shock and illness.

Will the tank be accessible?

The final consideration in assessing the site for your aquarium is whether you can easily reach your heat controls and air valves.

New fish

Ideally new fish should be quarantined for up to six weeks in a tank reserved
for this purpose. Use the transfer methods already described when introducing
them to the main tank.

Transferring the Fish

There are two methods commonly used to introduce fish into the aquarium. One way is to transfer the fish into separate glass jars, and float the jars in the aquarium for fifteen to twenty minutes. Make certain the jars do not have so much water in them that they sink. Every few minutes add small amounts of aquarium water to each jar. After the water temperature in the jar is the same as that in the aquarium, tip the fish into a net and release it into the aquarium. Do not pour water from other tanks into your aquarium as it may introduce unwanted organisms. The second method uses the plastic bags in which the fish are usually transported. Use the same floating technique, making sure that there is plenty of air in the bag so that the fish do not suffocate. Do not allow the bags to collapse. These methods are tedious, but they will reduce the initial shock to your fish in their new environment.
The reason for introducing only a few fish at first is to initiate the nitrogen cycle, which takes at least twenty to twenty-five days to stabilize. More fish should not be added until the nitrite level has dropped to a safe level otherwise the fish will die. Nitrite test kits are available from pet shops.

Regular Water Changes

A weekly water change of approximately 20 per cent with water of the same temperature is advised. For freshwater fish do not use water from the hot water system as it may be contaminated with copper. The water to be changed should be siphoned from the bottom, making sure that the gravel is gently agitated and that any algae that has accumulated is removed with the water. If the water is very soft, the addition of half a teaspoon of common salt with a pinch of both magnesium sulphate and potassium sulphate is recommended to each 5 liters of replaced water. Temperature and pH should be checked and adjusted if necessary.

Signs of Trouble

As you come to know your fish, there are several signs that may indicate trouble on the face of the water, it can mean that the tank is not getting enough oxygen. This may be due to inefficient or clogged filters, water pollution (due to excess particles of decomposed food), poor aeration or overcrowding. This is serious and requires immediate action. Change at least one-fifth of the water in the tank, replacing it with water of the same temperature. Clean and replenish the filter, siphoning off excess .food. Increase aeration and reduce the number of fish. Another danger sign is cloudy water. This usually results from excess feeding. Never tap on the glass side of the aquarium, as this is like a sonic boom to the fish and can cause them to go into shock.

Pollutants

The amount of dissolved nitrites and nitrates in the water is a direct indication of the level of water pollution. High pollution levels impair the health of fish and can be lethal. Chemical kits for testing the pH, hardness and pollution levels of nitrites and nitrates in your aquarium are available. They should be used regularly. To maintain a low nitrite/nitrate level it is essential to change part of the water regularly.

Feeding and Control

It is advisable not to feed the fish until they have adapted to their new environment. Watch them closely; if they are hiding in corners, not moving about or looking pale, something is out of order. Recheck your establishment procedure. Is the temperature correct? Was the water too fresh? Is the lighting level in part of the tank too high? Are there sufficient plants to provide hiding for the fish? Are the fish healthy?

Feeding

Tropical and Goldfish tend to be good eaters, while marine fish can be a little fussy. Generally, tropical fish, Goldfish and marine fish can all be fed a similar diet, and there is a wide range of adequate economical commercial fish foods available. The following is a list of some foods of particular delight to each group.

Tropical and Coldwater

Food for tropical fish should be high in protein, low in fat and oil. Trot and Goldfish will all eat kangaroo meat, horse meat, earthworms, moss, larvae, slaters, house flies (without insecticide), rolled oats, lettuce, spin crushed peas and broad beans. Do not feed mutton or mince meat. Marine Marine fish are particularly partial to dry flake food, shrimps, tubiflex, of fresh meat, ground beef, heart, prawns and Pacific plankton. Marine ±Al are fussy and may prefer chunks, strips, mashed or ground food. When else fails, offer live food. They love fresh, live, adult brine shrimp.
There are three basic rules about feeding fish: (1) Feed sparingly often. If all the food is not eaten within five minutes of feeding, you might be providing too much and the residue will pollute the aquarium. (2) the kind and shape of the food if the fish are not eating it. (3) Be careful with fussy eaters and resort to live foods if necessary. Avoid continually modifying the aquarium conditions. A stable environment develops a necessary sense of security. Avoid overcrowding. Calculate how much your aquarium can safely keep—remember, for small troy fish, 2 liters of water for every centimeter of fish—and always have fewer than that.

Brackish Water

Most Catfish will tolerate slightly brackish water such as that containing half a teaspoon of salt, a pinch of potassium sulphate and one of magnesium sulphate per 5 liters of water, as recommended. Most of the common aquarium Catfish (and the Discus) are derived from high up the Amazon River where the water is very soft, very low in salt and very acid. These fish are bred in water containing these quantities of salts at a pH of 6.8 and a temperature of 24-26°C—although the purists may prefer a pH of 6.2 and a temperature of 29-31°C in water containing no salt. Live bearers such as Mollies, Swords and Platys appear to suffer more from lack of salt than do Corydoras and Discus, from the addition of the above quantities.

Controlling Snails

Sooner or later water-snails, the uninvited guests, will appear in I aquarium. They find their way into the tank with plants or with live foci. It is not necessary to use snails for cleaning up excess food and algae. In fact, hungry snails will eat your aquarium plants. A rapid increase in the snail population is a sure sign of overfeeding. If snails should breed beyond control, do not use chemicals to get rid of them, as dead snails will only foul the water. It is better to feed for the next few weeks and effect a natural control. Alternatively snails ma: be picked out with a long pair of clean tongs. Another method is to limit feeding for a few days, then place a saucer on the bottom of the aquarium upside down with some food underneath; the snails adhere to the saucer and can be removed with the saucer.

Abortion

The normal gestation period of a mare is between eleven and twelve months. Abortion in horses is defined as the death and expulsion of the fetus before ten months. The causes of abortion are varied but they can be grouped under general headings.

Fetal Infection

The three possible routes of infection are the mother’s bloodstream, through the cervix during pregnancy, or the presence of infection already in the uterus at the time of conception. Infection may be caused by fungi, bacteria, or viruses. A virus that is at present causing a great deal of concern world-wide is the rhinopneumonitis virus, or virus abortion. This causes a respiratory disease in all horses,male and female, but in the pregnant mare some six to eight weeks after the respiratory head-cold it causes abortion of the fetus. In some countries it has become the most common cause of abortion. The mare will usually conceive quite normally the following year and carry the foal. In some countries a vaccine is available against the disease.

Fetal Starvation

The developing fetus depends for its supplies of vital food material in the first few weeks on the secretions of the uterus and then later on the placenta. These mechanisms may fail for one reason or another and cut the food supply from the fetus. Death results. It may be due to malnutrition of the mare, extreme changes in her management, growth of twin fetuses or from hormonal or glandular problems.

Hormonal Deficiencies

Where the mare has been shown to abort because of hormonal deficiency, she can be given hormone injections throughout the term of a subsequent pregnancy. Seek veterinary advice.
In any case of abortion, no matter what you think the cause is, remove other in-contact mares to a separate, empty paddock. Then call your vet to do a postmortem and to take samples for examination. Burn or bury the remains of the foal and membranes and isolate the stall. The dead foal’s membranes and the uterine fluids from the mare are highly infectious to other horses if virus abortion was the culprit. Disinfect the general area where the abortion took place. Unfortunately, if all the mares have been together for several months the damage is probably done and the other mares are also likely to abort.

Abrasions

An abrasion is where several layers of skin have been taken off, leaving a weeping or bleeding patch. It does not go right through the hide. Abrasions occur round the back of the pastern, round the cannon bone (wire burns) and on the extensor surfaces of the legs and joints (gravel burns). The materials causing the abrasions are frequently rope (the tethered horse gets tangled in rope or sometimes it is the result of stringent methods of breaking in, when a foal is roped up); wire (the horse gets tangled in fences); and gravel (the animal falls when on a gravel road).
The best therapy is hot and cold foments followed by the surgical removal of tags of tissue that have lost their blood supply. Apply Socatyl paste (an antibiotic and anti-inflammatory) to the area, and bandage. Change the bandage each two days. Once the lesions have stopped leaking serum, they can be allowed to dry out and a topical astringent agent such as mercurochrome or acriflavine can be applied to the areas twice daily. Do not pick scabs off wounds unless pus is accumulating.

Abscesses

Abscesses can be caused by infection with strangles, dirty injections, or foreign bodies. Abscesses in the mouth are frequently caused by grain, grass seeds or a decayed tooth root. An abscess is effectively present in fistulous withers and poll evil. An abscess is really an accumulation of organisms producing pus.
Hot foment the area six times daily by holding a warm, wet cloth against the abscess site. This should be done fora few days until the abscess becomes soft and pointed. Once there is an obvious fluid accumulation under the skin surface, sterilize a razor blade or scalpel blade by holding it in a flame for thirty seconds. Nick the top of the abscess quickly with the blade and allow the pus to drain out. If possible, enlarge the opening to at least I centimeter in diameter; this will prevent the skin from healing too quickly. Next, wash out the abscess with 50 per cent per-oxide and water, using a large syringe without a needle four times daily. Continue to hot foment and massage the area. After four days, continue to wash out the wound three times a day with plain water until it heals from the inside out. Do not let the skin edges seal together prematurely as this leaves a cavity in which the abscess can reform. If the horse is affected generally, antibiotics should be given.

Accidents

If a horse has had an accident, very calmly keep talking to it, as it is probably in a state of panic. If the horse is off its feet and entangled in wire or rope, hold its head to the ground to prevent the animal from standing (sit on the horse’s head if necessary). Remove any obstacles from around the horse, and apply a tourniquet or pressure bandage to bleeding points. Keep the horse warm and, if necessary, contact a vet.
A first-aid box should always be kept in the stables for emergencies.

Actinomycosis

Actinomycosis is a rare bacterial condition in the horse. When an animal is affected, however, areas of the jaw bone become very swollen, and may burst and discharge pus. The condition can be controlled by antibiotics. The condition is caused by organisms entering via tooth sockets.

African Horse Sickness

African horse sickness is a fatal viral disease of horses and is confined to Africa. It can affect the heart, the lungs, or both. The condition begins with a fever, and the incubation period is from two to four weeks. Some horses show slight symptoms of illness such as loss of appetite, conjunctivitis. labored breathing and an accelerated pulse, but the characteristic symptom is the raised body temperature which reaches 40.5°C in about one to three days. There is no treatment available.

Anaemia

Dietary deficiencies of certain amino acids, proteins, iron,copper and cobalt can all cause anaemia, but worms are probably the most common cause in horses. Equine infectious anaemia (swamp fever) and loss of blood in the gastrointestinal tract are also causes. Signs of anaemia are pale mucous membranes of the mouth and eyes, lethargy, ill-thrift, and poor coat. When treating anaemia it is essential to first eliminate the cause. Follow this up with iron supplementation, and increase the protein level in the diet. This can be done by feeding the horse milk powder at the rate of 250 grams per day or soya bean meal, or meat meal or cottonseed meal at the rate of 500 grams per day, and giving injections of vitamin B complex and folic acid twice weekly until the horse’s health is restored

Aneurism

An aneurism is a dilation in an artery wall. In the horse this is caused by worm infestation weakening the wall of the artery and allowing it to distend and stretch. The wall maybe come so weakened that it ruptures, causing the animal to bleed to death internally. Alternatively, the wall maybe come thickened due to inflammation caused by the migrating larvae. In these cases blood supply can be interrupted to a section of intestine or to a limb.

Anthrax

Anthrax is a highly contagious, world-wide bacterial disease characterized by septicemia. The horse develops an acute colic and fever, and hot swelling may occur in the neck, throat or chest. In other cases, the symptoms are lack of breath with fever, and bloody discharges from the rectum. Death occurs in one to two days. The carcass should not be touched by anyone apart from the vet who does the diagnostic postmortem, and must be disposed of by burn-ing. Sudden death after a short, acute illness indicates the possibility of anthrax. In most countries the Department of Agriculture must be notified, and the property where the disease occurs put under strict quarantine. Anthrax is always fatal, and can easily infect other animals and humans.

Arthritis

Arthritis is the name given to inflammation of a joint. In horses it usually results from an injury, but there can be other causes. In performance horses such as racing thoroughbreds and standard bred, jumpers and endurance horses the most common joint affected is the fetlock. Arthritis can be either septic or aseptic. When it is septic the initial symptoms are usually a sudden development of heated pain, with the joint becoming swollen and tense. Movement is restricted and there is marked lameness. The joint appears to be filled with fluid. The horse may have a temperature and the area over the joint feels hot to the touch when compared to the joints on the other leg. In an aseptic arthritis the injury is usually due to chronic work-load. In these cases the onset of soreness and lameness is much slower, perhaps developing over a period of months. One of the initial signs is decreased flexion of the joint. The joint area itself becomes enlarged (apple-jointed) and there will be a concurrent increase in size of visible joint capsules(wind-galls).
Antibiotics are essential treatment for septic arthritis. For both types of arthritis complete rest is essential. Make frequent cold applications to the part involved, or irrigate with cold water several times a day. In between. drawing agents such as antiphlogistine packs, epsom salt bandages,or other commercially available packs can be placed on the joint. Systemic anti-inflammatory treatments such as butazolidine or cortisone are often helpful in reducing the degree of inflammation. In cases of open arthritis (open joint), where there is an opening from the joint to the skin,it is best to seek the advice of a veterinary surgeon.

Artificial Insemination

Artificial insemination simply means the artificial introduction of male semen into the genital tract of the female, as compared with natural insemination. This technique is feasible in mares. For information contact your veterinarian. The practice is banned by many breed registries, notably in thoroughbreds, to preserve the economics of the horse-breeding industry.

Azoturia (Tying-up)

The signs of this disease vary from mild to severe. In mild cases, when the horse cools down after exercise it may ‘dip’ when pressed over the loins or become stiff in either the shoulders or hindquarters or both. In these mild cases the horse has a shortened stride of either the front or hind legs or both. In severe cases the horse might go only a hundred meters before all its muscles jam and the horse is unable to move. The muscles over the loins become rock-hard and urine may be of a port wine color. Azoturia is extremely painful. It is usually caused by a high-grain diet combined with a low exercise level. The energy from the high-grain diet is stored in the muscles, and finally breaks down to forman acid. This acts on the muscles,-causing the condition. Classic cases are seen in horses fed hard-grain rations seven days a week, and exercised six days with a day off on Sunday. The disease hits them on Monday when they begin working (its name used to be ‘Monday morning sickness or disease’). The horse must be stopped immediately from any work that it is doing. Do not even try to walk it back to its stall. Warmth is helpful—double-rug the affected animal, or at least use one rug with a folded blanket or feed sack over the loins. Treatment consists of neutralizing the acidity with intravenous injections, and applying anti-inflammatory agents. Alkaline solutions can also be given as saline drenches by stomach tube. It is essential to rest the horse for several days after all symptoms have gone. Eliminate all grain from the diet. The horse should be brought back into work gradually, over a protracted period of several weeks. Control of the disease involves working the horse seven days a week, reducing the high-grain diet, or reducing throat content of the diet and replacing some of it with corn. Injections of selenium and vitamin E are helpful. Add electrolyte preparations to feed or water—these contain alkaline salts to neutralize the acid in the muscles and act as a mild diuretic to flush the acid and waste products from the muscles. A horse that has tied-up once is more likely to suffer from the problem again.

Back Injuries

Back injuries are rarely serious unless the horse has reared over backwards, is steeple chasing, racing or jumping, in which case there is a possibility of fracturing the spine. If a horse comes down in a fall, let it lie quietly for several minutes in case it is merely winded. The animal should then be encouraged to rise.
If there is no sign of attempts to rise, or if the horse appears able to use only its forelegs, it can be concluded that the back is probably fractured and the horse should be destroyed. Crushing or severance of the spinal cord produces typical signs of hindquarter paralysis. The tail is completely limp and the anus relaxed and open, possibly with feces dropping from the passage. In the male the penis will be relaxed and protruding from the sheath. Definite indications of paralysis are not always present in the case of fracture of the back. Sometimes the injury is a cracked vertebra with insufficient displacement to do any damage to the spinal cord. In these cases the horse can usually walk awkwardly and box-rest is advised—but your vet will advise on individual cases.
Muscle soreness over the loins is usually due to mild `tying-up.’ It is rare for a horse to strain these muscles. Additional supportive treatment includes ray-lamps and liniments rubbed into the affected areas.
Sacroiliac ligament strain is evidenced by wasting of the muscles on both sides of the rump. Usually there is a peak-ing at the back line between the points of the hip. The only satisfactory treatment is to spell the horse for at least sixteen weeks.
Saddle-rub is most commonly caused by an ill-fitting saddle and/or insufficient padding between the saddle and the horse. Rub the area of the saddle sore with methylated spirits to dry up and harden the area. If the horse must be used before the wound is treated, purchase a 5-centimeter foam rubber saddle-pad and cut a hole over the saddlesore. This will allow the horse to be ridden while the saddlesore repairs. Once the sore has healed, use an extra saddle-blanket to prevent recurrence.
Spondylitis (arthritis of the backbone) is more common in older horses that have been used for work or sport. Sometimes this condition is due to the horse being cast oreven flipping right over in a float or stable. Symptoms of spondylitis include dipping when mounted or palpated along the midline of the back. Treatment includes rubbing in a muscle liniment or warming the area with a ray-lamp. However, better results are usually achieved by using anti-inflammatory analgesic agents such as butazolidine. Chiropractors and physiotherapists have been involved in treatment with varying success rates. The difficulty is the huge mass of muscle to manipulate successfully.

Bandaging the Legs

Bandages are used for support when the horse is being worked or floated,or when a wound needs covering. Whether an adhesive bandage or a non-adhesive bandage is used depends on how active the horse is, the region of the leg requiring bandaging, and the frequency with which the bandage has-to be changed. It is very difficult (in fact, almost impossible) to bandage the hock without using a self-adhesive bandage. Where dressings need to be changed daily, it is best not to use self-adhesive bandages because they are expensive, cannot be re-used and can pull out .hairs quite easily.
When applying bandages to the various parts of the limbs, it is best to commence by using a wad of cotton-wool from a roll. Wind this once around the affected limb. Start the self-adhesive bandage so that there is at least centimeters on the horse’s skin, then wind the rest around the cotton-wool. Continue winding the bandage around the leg until the bottom of the wad-ding is reached, finishing off with another 3 centimeters on the skin. In the case of the fetlock and the knee, it is important to cross-cross to the opposite sides of the joint to get a firm holding. It is vitally important that the rear of the knee is not bandaged, and the bone (accessory carpal bone) left exposed. Bandaging over this bone will result in a pressure sore which takes a long time to heal.
Whenever restrictions such as bandages are applied to the limbs of horse, they should be checked twice a day for the first few days and then daily to detect any undue swelling. If the limb begins to fill below or above the bandage, the bandage should be removed immediately. If possible, the horse should be walked for exercise to reduce the swelling.

Bee Stings

If possible remove the sting. Apply ammonia, a strong solution of washing soda, or a paste of washing soda. If there are a number of stings, antihistamines can be given by a veterinary surgeon and antibiotic cover is often necessary.

Bleeding

Nose-bleeding
Nose-bleeding can occur from a knock to the head. This should be suspected if the bleeding is unrelated to exercise, and particularly if it is from one nostril. Tie the horse up,so that its head is in the normal position, and apply cold towels to the forehead and nose. Horses in hard training and reaching the peak of fitness will often bleed a few drops (up to a cupful) from one or both nostrils after they have finished exercise. This is caused by either a rupture of a vessel at the top of the nose or, more dangerously, bleed-ing in the lungs. A veterinary surgeon should be consulted after any such bleeding attacks.
Leg wounds
The horse has many large blood vessels in the limbs. When these are cut it is best to stop the bleeding by tight pressure bandages and, if necessary, a tourniquet applied above the knee or hock. (The need for a tourniquet is rare, however.)Self-adhesive bandages 7.5 centimeters wide make ideal pressure bandages.

Blood counts

The normal blood count of the horse is given in the section Caring for the sick horse.

Blood Poisoning (Septiceleania)

Blood poisoning occurs where organisms enter the bloodstream either from the bowel or by penetrating wounds (for example, abscesses). The signs of blood poisoning are lethargy, depressed appetite, sometimes a fever, and a darkening of mucous membranes. This con-dition can be fatal unless the horse is treated properly,usually with antibiotics.

Boma Disease

Boma disease is an inflammatory disease of the brain. There is fever, paralysis of the pharynx, muscle tremor and lethargy. Paralysis is seen in terminal stages and death occurs one to three weeks after signs begin. Mortality is usually 60-70 per cent. The disease has only ever been recorded in Germany.

Broken Wind

Broken wind or ‘heaves’ is a chronic respiratory condition caused by emphysema of the lungs. Emphysema is a persistent over-distention of the air-sacs. As a result of this distention the walls separating one sac from another be-come thin and weak and finally rupture. In this way a number of sacs may ‘run together’ and form a large gap. This reduces the area available for the exchange of oxygen. In many cases it is the result of violent expiratory efforts such as coughing. It can also occur after bronchitis or pneumonia, particularly if the horse is kept in work while it has a virus. It may be due to feeding dusty food, which brings about coughing, or too bulky food, especially if the animal is habitually worked hard immediately after feeding. The animals affected are usually good feeders and are often in good condition. The two main signs of the condition are a double expiratory effort and a cough. The cough is fairly frequent and can be induced by finger pressure over the larynx. It is long, deep, and hollow and may appear in spasms. In severe cases the animal will exhibit signs when at rest. In moderate cases animals exhibit the signs only after exercise.
The movements are exaggerated during expiration. There is at first a short normal contraction of the abdominal muscles and after a slight pause a second more pro-longed contraction. There may be a slight discharge from the nose. Depending on the degree of damage, some horses will be useless to the owners. There is no likelihood of recovery.
Prevention: Attend to feeding. Avoid dusty feed. Avoid bulky food before exercise. Do not give forced exercise to a horse in soft condition, after feeding or while coughing from any cause.

Burns

Burns and scalds are extremely painful and animals will resent anything but the most gentle handling and dressing of the affected parts. All extensive burns and scalds (cover-ing more than 5 per cent of the body surface) should be attended to by a veterinary surgeon at the earliest possiblemoment. The burnt or scalded area must be covered with a clean, dry dressing (for example, gauze, a clean hanker-chief or a towel) and a bandage applied to keep it in position. Never apply oil, grease, flour, soot, baking soda,spirit, tincture of iodine or lysol to the burn or scald.
Where the burn results from a flame, the burned area will be devoid of hair. Any loose, charred debris can be removed by gauze soaked in warm, normal saline—one tea-spoonful of salt to 600 milliliters of warm, boiled water. If there is gross dirt or grease around the affected area, soap and warm water may be used before the normal saline swabbing. Alternatively, acriflavine (one part in one thou-sand) may be used in the same way, thus cleansing the burnt area at the same time. For first aid of trivial burns, use tannic acid, jellies, warm, strong tea oracriflavine (one part in one thousand).
If the burn is caused by corrosive acid, bathe the part with an alkaline solution which can be made by adding a dessert spoonful of baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) to 600 milliliters of boiled water. Washing soda (sodium carbonate) may be used in the same strength. If neither of these is available, wash the part gently with plenty of warm water.
If a burn is caused by a corrosive alkali such as quick-lime, brush out any of its remains from the animal’s coat and bathe the area with an acid solution. This can be made by mixing equal parts of vinegar and water. After acids and alkalis have been neutralized the burnt area should be treated with one of the local applications previously mentioned

Calcium Deficiency

If a complete commercial ration is being used, there is no need for the addition of calcium. When high-grain diets are fed calcium carbonate should be added because these are high in phosphorus and low in calcium. The calcium : phosphorus ratio should be 1.1:1. A horse suffer-ing from calcium deficiency may sometimes eat manure.

Calf-Kneed

The knee is concave at the front like a young calf’s knee. Little can be done for this conformation abnormality.

Capped Elbow

Capped elbow is caused by the heel of the front shoe touching the elbow when the horse is lying down with its legs tucked beneath it. The bone is bruised, and a serious(watery) discharge forms to protect the bone from further mechanical damage. This appears as a fluid swelling on the point of the elbow. As long as the heel of the shoe continues to touch the elbow, the condition will persist, despite treatment.
Either remove the shoe, or place an Elizabethan collar around the fetlock. Once remedial action has been taken to prevent contact, the elbow can be drained by a veterinary surgeon and the blemish, provided it has not been present for a long period, will disappear.

Carpitis

Carpitis is an inflammation of the knee joint. It is caused by hard performance work such trotting, or jumping, or by a horse continually knocking a knee against an object. An X-ray may reveal a chip of bone at the front of the knee. It is common when immature horses are worked hard and long on hard tracks. The causative agent must be detected and stopped, and the condition can be controlled with cold packs, antiphlogistine, or by cold hosing. Rest for several weeks is essential.

Caslick’s Operation

Temporary stitching of the vulva to prevent fecal matter from entering the vagina and setting up infection that would threaten a pregnancy.

Castration

A male horse can be castrated (gelded) from the age of two months, but -the most common age is between eighteen months and two years. The modem method for castration usually involves a general anesthetic. Local anaesthetic can be used, however, if the horse will stand quietly. The castration wounds are usually left open to drain, as the most common problem after castration is swelling and/or infection. To prevent swelling building up, the horse should be exercised by lungeing or riding for twenty minutes twice daily for fourteen days after the operation. The more exercise the horse gets the less possibility there is of unwanted side effects. After each exercise period the wound should be hosed for five minutes so that it does not attract flies. The horse should be carefully observed for the first three days in case there is any protrusion of bowel or fat through the wound. This is most likely to occur in the first few hours and is more common in standard bred. If it is detected confine the horse, use moistened towels on the wound and call the vet urgently.

Choking

Choking can be a problem with horses because the esophagus (gullet. food pipe) is so long-1.5 meters—and so ran-row. In the heart region it narrows is even further. Choking is usually caused by a piece of carrot, turnip, potato, apple,or by the administration of gelatin capsules containing medication. Dry food such as corn, cut hay or chopped chaff, swallowed rapidly by a greedy feeder, can pack up in the gullet. The usual signs are difficulty in swallowing or complete inability to swallow, profuse salivation and evidence of spasm of the food pipe. The horse suddenly ceases to feed and makes several attempts to swallow or to get rid of the obstruction. There is marked evidence of distress. A veterinary surgeon should be called. If the obstruction is Inthe region of the back of the throat, the vet will attempts to remove it by using the gag. If the obstruction is further cloy the food pipe, a stomach tube can be used to gently push the obstruction into the stomach. Sometimes surgery is required to free the obstruction.

Colic

The term ‘colic’ means a set of symptoms that indicate severe or violent abdominal pain. True colic relates to those conditions arising in the stomach and intestines. False colic is caused by conditions affecting other abdominal organs, such as calculi (stones) in the bile duct, or ureter and acute infections of the bladder or genital organs. Colic is far more common in horses than in any other animal. This can be attributed to the small size of the stomach and its small digestive surface; the inability to vomit or unload the stomach; the great length of the intestines and the puckering of the large intestine which allows food or foreign bodies to lodge there; the great range of movement allowed to the intestine within the abdomen; the great frequency with which the horse is affected with internal para-sites; and the fact that the horse has to work at the direction of its owner. Colic is more common at night and is frequently connected with irregular feeding.
Dietary errors such as insufficient supply of water, neglect of regularity in feeding, and long fasts followed by the allowance of extra large feeds, or cold water are responsible for a large number of cases of colic. Preventive measures cannot be ignored in stable management. Im-proper food is most likely to cause harm when it is associated with sudden change of diet, imperfect mastication, greedy feeding or excessive quantity. Many foods, such as uncooked barley, corn, moldy food, badly made mouldy hay and wheat are notoriously indigestible. Overeating, as when a horse breaks into a feed shed, is a common cause.
Foreign bodies such as bits of metal, sand or earth will also cause abdominal pain. Sand is particularly a problem where horses are confined to small areas of sandy soil. Sand colic can still occur when horses are fed in feed tins off the ground—but the condition is more frequent in horses fed on the ground.
Water may cause colic if given in large quantities and very cold to a horse still sweating. Insufficient water and drinking from shallow, sandy pools can also cause problems.
Colic can also be caused by heavy work combined with irregular feedings. Many serious cases develop during high-stress work. Working the horse hard immediately after feeding may also cause colic.
Other causes, some of which cannot be prevented even by good management of the horse, are strangulated hernias, twisted bowels, defective secretion of digestive juices, lack of muscle tone, stricture of the bowel, wind-sucking and even nervous upsets, such as a long float trip or a bad thunderstorm.
The signs of colic can be mild or severe. A horse with a mild form of colic may be on its feet, with its neck out-stretched and upper lip curled back. It may look at its sides, paw the ground, yawn frequently (a common indication of pain), or just be off its food. In more severe cases the horsehorse will lie on the ground and roll continuously from one side to the other. The horse will begin to sweat, the mucous membranes will become darker and the pulse rate/heart rate will exceed 45. Once the heart rate exceeds 70 it in-variably indicates a serious form of colic which may require surgery. Because the causes of colic are so numerous and so varied, it is important to call the vet so that a full examination of the horse can commence in order to deter-mine exactly what is causing the colic. If the horse is lying down but not rolling, leave it be. If the horse is rolling, get it to its feet and keep it walking until the vet arrives.
One of the most common types of colic is impaction colic, which occurs when the horse becomes constipated. Constipation is indicated by reduced numbers of droppings per day, and reduced quantity, with the pebbles being very small and hard. The horse should be given a warm bran mash with molasses at each feed time until the droppings become soft. Some horses require bran mashes two to three times weekly in order to keep their digestive systems flow-ing.
Some hints on preventing colic:

• Have the teeth checked regularly.
• Worm regularly.
• Provide a regular diet and water.
• Don’t exercise on a full stomach.
• Let the horse cool off after work before giving it food or water.
• Adjust the food by consistency of the droppings; if the molasses to the diet.
• Don’t feed green food unless the horse is used to it. Check food (especially bales of lucerne hay) for mold.

Constipation

Constipation in newborn foals is quite common and is called retained meconium. It can be corrected by administering 30 milliliters of warm, soapy water to the rectum as an enema, and then using a finger to manually rake out the feces.
In older horses the condition is evidenced by hard, pebbly droppings in small quantities, and reduced frequency of defection. It can be corrected using warm bran mashes with molasses, linseed meal, boiled barley, increased bran content in the diet or 4.5 liters of medicinal paraffin oil. If the oil is administered by lay persons without a stomach tube, care must be taken to give the oil slowly so that it does not go into the lungs and cause pneumonia.

Coughing

Coughing can be caused by viruses, allergies to dust or straw (which can be associated with broken wind), growths in the larynx of the horse (usually in old age), parasites(particularly migrating roundworms) which stimulate the horse to cough as they are brought up into the larynx for re-swallowing, pharyngitis caused by fungi, bacteria and viruses, and bronchopneumonia and pneumonia, both of which are caused by viruses, bacteria or foreign bodies such as medications that inadvertently go into the lungs rather than into the food pipe.
Coughing is not a disease on its own, but a symptom of many different conditions. In order to eliminate the cough it is important to determine what is causing it. If it originates from an inflammatory condition of the larynx, local cough pastes may have an effect. If the infection is bacterial, antibiotics will help, but if it is viral little can be done until the horse builds an immunity to the virus. Some countries now have vaccines against the influenza virus.
All horses with coughs should be rested for one week after the cough has gone.
Crib-biting Crib-biting, like wind-sucking and weaving, can become a problem with stabled horses suffering, boredom.
On the edges of the wall, or any projection in its stall or loose box the horse then arches its neck and swallows a quantity of air, at the same time emitting a peculiar characteristic grunting sound. Unfortunately, as horses are great mimics, other horses in the same stables are likely to acquire the habit. Young foals have been observed using their mother’s hock joints as a source of crib-biting. Chronic cribbers are usually hard to keep in condition; in bad cases this can amount to emaciation. Sometimes crib-biting can be a cause of colic. Crib-biting is classified as a vice and generally lowers the horse’s value.
Painting the edges of mangers, rails and boxes with unpleasant-tasting chemicals does not usually deter the determined crib-biter for long. Muzzles (with bars across the bottom) work in some cases. They enable the horse to pickup grain and to pull at hay, but not to grasp the edge of the manger. Once the muzzle is removed, however, the horse will begin crib-biting again. It is claimed that the horse is unable to crib-bite unless it has a vacuum in its mouth, and the use of a hollow bit tends to do away with the vacuum. Crib-biting horses are sometimes kept success-fully in loose boxes in racing establishments with the aid of electric wires strung 45 centimeters in from the walls of the box so that the horse cannot touch any solid object. Wide leather straps or metal chains placed tightly aroundthe horse’s throat will prevent the ingestion of air and diminish in number the horse’s attempts at cribbing. Reducing the horse’s boredom by putting it out to pasture will reduce the incidence of cribbing.

Cryptorchidism

Cryptorchidism, or failure of normal descent of the testicles, is a relatively common condition in horses. One testicle can be involved or both. After the age of twelvemonths it is rare for retained testicles to descend. The con-dition is hereditary. Retention of one or both testicles can cause behavioral problems and the horse may become dangerous.
In monorchidism, where one testicle descends and the other is retained, the descended testicle should never be removed without removing the retained testicle. The reason is that the horse may be sold as a gelding—yet cause serious injury by its unpredictable behavior.

Dehydration

Dehydration occurs when there is a net deficiency of body fluids. It can occur when the horse is losing a lot of fluids because of diarrhea, or through increased sweating in working horses. It can also occur where horses fail to drink sufficiently. (This sometimes happens when a horse is sick or working under stress.) Varying degrees of dehydration with disturbances of electrolyte metabolism are far more common than one would expect. Signs can vary from sub-optimal performance, to the clinically obvious hide-bound appearance seen in severe cases. Dehydration can be identified by analysis of blood samples.
To prevent dehydration use a commercially available electrolyte mix in the horse’s food or water every day. Some horses are reluctant to take the electrolytes, so it is best to add them to the horse’s water. Give the water following exercise, when the horse is thirsty. As the horse drinks the water, keep topping it up to dilute the salts. If the horse will not take the electrolytes in food or water—even after adding a sweetener such as molasses—then use a stomach tube. Many trainers of racehorses have them stomach tubed once or twice weekly with electrolytes to prevent dehydration.
To test for dehydration, pinch and lift a fold of skin on the neck directly in front of the shoulder. The skin should immediately return to its normal position. If it stays in fold for more than three seconds, the horse is dehydrated.

Diarrhea

In the suckling foal diarrhea will occur as a natural phenomenon when the mare comes into season.
In both foals and adult horses diarrhea may be caused by bacteria, viruses, fungi, the protozoan giardia, nervousness, oral antibiotics, electrolyte imbalances, parasites (this is very common) and dietary changes. Dietary causes include fresh lucerne. grazing on winter oats, bran mashes,molasses and damp feeds. The diarrhea may be apparently four to six times daily, while the horse is apparently otherwise normal. On the other hand the diarrhea may be more frequent and have a foul smell. This usually is due to blood and mucous membrane lining from the gut and is called dysentery. It is very serious and requires veterinary treatment urgently. The diagnosis and treatment of diarrhea is often very difficult. Sometimes massive wasting of body tissues can occur before treatment is effective. The diagnosis cause of diarrhea is based on microscopic examine the feces for worm parasite eggs and giardia, and cultures to locate causative bacteria. Blood counts are helpful in determining electrolyte abnormalities. Diarrhea in foals and horses is a condition that requires veterinary attention. In young foals particularly, it can progress to infection of joints and pneumonia.
The treatment of diarrhea cases depends on the of the disease. The owner should not deprive the horse of water, as this will only increase the possibility of hydration. The diet should be changed to increase the pollard and chaff, creating a bland diet and lucerne. Various treatment regimes under veterinarian.

Discharge

A discharge means that there is an area of infection ing. This can be soft tissue (for example, an abscess_ muscle), an embedded foreign body, or decay oft – tooth. It is pointless cleaning the superficial discharge basic cause must be identified and treated.

Drenching

Drenching usually refers to the oral administration of liquid medications. It is done for the purpose of correction of dehydration or feeding the sick horse.
It is also refer to the administration of these compounds via stomach tube. Stomach tubing is the insertion of a tube through the nostril and into the stomach of the horse is a delicate procedure, for if the tube enters the 11 n medication is administered the horse will die. Storring of horses should be left to a veterinary surgeon

Dropped Elbow (Radial Parallysts)

In this condition, which is caused by injury to thee ranerve where it passes over the front of the shoulder animal stands with the knee of the affected leg bent fetlock semi-flexed. .The lameness (paralysis) rapidly worsens, and if itduring a journey the horse may experience great in getting to a stable. The condition can also occur after horse has been lying on its side for some period operation (damage can be prevented by elevating the shoulder and pushing an inflated tyre-tube. The nerve may also be damaged by a car accident or a from another horse.
The animal can be put into slings for the first few or until it becomes accustomed to the loss of use of limb. Massage of the shoulder muscle for an hour daily is very helpful; sometimes electrical massage procedures help the muscle retain its tone. Beyond that, you can only wait for natural healing to take place. If no improvement after six weeks, euthanasia ma-only choice. Complete healing is a very long-term often up to six months.
The elbow will also drop, and the leg assume picture in severe lameness of the foot. However condition, the horse can draw the leg forward and

Dropsy

This is a filling of the head, legs, dependent parts of the chest, the prepuce and belly with fluid. It can occur as abnormal syndrome in mares in late pregnancy, but it is usually associated with a heart or circulation problem. If it occurs in one area (for example, one limb) only, the poor circulation may be due to infection or tight bandages.
Ear Disorders

Horses rarely have trouble with their ears. If there is an ear infection, the horse will carry its head on the side, or hold both ears in a lop-eared (horizontal) position.
Wind a wad of cotton-wool around the end of your finger and clean out the ear canal. If the infection is caused by ear-mites, these will be seen under a magnifying glass on the dirt on the cotton-wool; they are white and their legs can be seen moving. Ear-drops used for dogs and cats are suitable for use in the horse’s ear and will clear out the mites. The horse’s ear does not need routine cleaning out during grooming.

Electrolytes

The main electrolytes are sodium, potassium, chloride and bicarbonate ions. These ions are lost in such body fluids as sweat, urine, diarrhea and saliva. Their function is to generate electrical impulses in the muscles of the body. Deficiencies lead to ineffective muscular movements and dehydration

Encephalitis

Encephalitis is an inflammation of the brain often associated with meningitis. It is caused by bacteria and viruses and can sometimes be a complication of strangles. Symptoms may range from dullness to head pushing and excitement. Suspected cases should be referred to a veterinary surgeon.

Equine Infectious Anaemia (Swamp Fever)

This is an acute or chronic viral disease of horses transmitted by biting flies, mosquitoes, or by injection of minute amounts of blood. It can also be transmitted by the ingestion of contaminated material. It is characterized by intermittent fever, loss of weight, progressive weakness,marked depression, and dropsy of the lower parts of the body. The disease also may exist in a subclinical form, in which the animal appears normal.
The disease is found in Europe, Japan, North America and Australia. As the virus is present in all the organs,blood, saliva, urine and milk of the horse, contamination of shared food and water supplies is common. There is no specific treatment for the disease.

Equine Piroplasmosis

This is a specific disease affecting horses, mules and don-keys, and is caused by the invasion of the red blood cells by a parasite. The symptoms are a high temperature and a yellow discoloration of the mucous membranes of the eye and mouth which after a few days become deep orange or reddish-brown in color. There is an irregular intermittent fever reaching 40.5-41°C. The urine may be a deep orange or reddish-brown color. The disease can be successfully treated with drugs.

Euthanasia

Sometimes a horse suffering from an incurable illness or severe injuries must be put down. Drugs now available allow a horse to be put down with more dignity than if it were shot. However, if drugs are not available and the case is urgent, the horse can be shot with a .22 calibre rifle. The bullet should be aimed 10-12 centimeters above the eyes in the centre line of the forehead—the gun so angled that the bullet passes upwards through the brain to the spinal cord

Eye Disorders

• Cataracts
Cataract refers to an opacity which affects the lens of theeye. The lens becomes chalky so that light does not passthrough it. The cataract may be congenital (present in the foal at birth) or it may be progressive, which means that a small congenital cataract may become more extensive. The condition may be acquired during life as an extension from an eye infection, or it may result from injury. There is not yet a successful treatment for cataract in the horse

Fetlock Joint DIsorders

The most common problem with the fetlocks is an arthritic condition called ‘apple-joint’. This is often associated with wind galls or with puffy swellings at the side of the joint. Both of these conditions are caused by strain on the joint, usually when young immature horses are used for hard work, such as endurance, racing or jumping. The swelling of the joint and the windgalls are due to arthritis caused by overextension of the joint. If work continues the joint will gradually lose flexion, the horse will become sore and consequently lame.
If the horse is young, stop any forced exercise and spell the horse until three years of age. If the horse is older, rest for four months—but the prognosis is unfavorable long term, if the same hard work is contemplated. Antiphlogistine packs, epsom salts bandages or cold hosing for ten minutes four times daily, will help to reduce the swelling and heat in acute cases. The administration of anti-inflammatory agents (for example, phenylbutazone and cortisone) also is helpful in relieving this condition.
Blistering or pin-firing have very little long-term effect. Once the joints have enlarged and are hard, nothing can be done to reduce their size. If the horse has been in work and the joints are cool and not sore on flexion, the prognosis is favorable.
Other conditions of the fetlock joint, such as fractured sesamoids, dislocation of the sesamoids, fractures of the long-bones either side of the joint and deviation of the joint should all be left to the vet for discussion.

Fever

Fever is a rise in body temperature. The fevered horse usually looks depressed and feels hot, particularly its ears. The normal rectal temperature for an adult horse is 37.5-38.5°C. A stubby thick bulb ended thermometer is best. The thermometer should be shaken down to below normal temperature level, inserted along the wall of the rectum and left in place for one minute. The normal body temperature may be higher in animals during pregnancy,parturition, lactation and in the young animal.
Fevers can be caused by various organisms, viruses, toxic products, certain chemical agents, heat or sunstroke. A fever usually has three stages: a cold stage or shivering fit, a hot stage, and the decline of the fever. As a rule fever is a protective reaction of the body against invading organisms. Providing the fever is mild and not therefore endangering the nervous system, the heart or the digestive organs, clean stabling and good food alone are satisfactory treatments. The animal should be kept in a well-ventilated,clean box and provided with a comfortable bed. If the horse is normally rugged, it should have a light-weight rug sufficient to keep it warm without sweating. If it sweats leave the rug off. There should be a plentiful supply of fresh clean drinking water and the diet should be laxative and easily assimilated. If the fever looks suspiciously like a symptom of a contagious disease, the animal must beisolated. Once temperatures get over 39.4°C veterinary attention should be sought.

Filled Legs

Filled legs refers to swelling in the legs, usually from the coronet upwards around the cannon bone. It may occur in-one leg or all four. Where it occurs in one leg it is usually due to a blow or injury. Greasy heel is also a cause. Close examination usually reveals a small nick or mark, perhaps where the horse has struck itself, where a small infection has developed. The horse should be lightly worked, thencold hosed and an antiphlogistine or epsom salts bandage placed on the leg. An epsom salts bandage is made by spreading out a piece of cotton-wool sufficient to cover the affected area. Lightly sprinkle epsom salts over and dampen. Place around the affected area and bandage over. This should be repeated at least twice daily for three to four days. Spray the nick with an antibiotic solution.
Sometimes the hind legs or all four legs fill overnight, but after work in the morning the swelling subsides. This maybe associated with high-grain diets or a virus. If the swell-ing in any leg is hot and does not improve with the above treatment, seek advice as the horse will need antibiotics.

First Aid Box

This should contain the following:
• Twitch
• Wire cutters
• Sharp knife. scissors
• Pliers (for pulling nails from feet)
• 4 adhesive bandages, 7.5 centimeters wide
• 4 conforming bandages, 7.5 centimeters wide
• 1 roll of cotton-wool
• 100 milliliters general antibiotic
• 6 (20 milliliter) syringes and needles, 19 gauge 500 grams epsom salts
• 1 packet of antiphlogistine
• 200 milliliters 5 per cent formalin Mercurochrome, triple dye
• Antibiotic lotion for topical application Antibiotic powder
• Thermometer (thick end bulbed)Peroxide 3%
• Antiseptic wash (e.g. chlorhexidine)

Fistula

This is a weeping wound—such as an open abscess site. It may be due to an infected bone, the root of a tooth, or to a foreign body lodged deep in the body (bits of stick, wire,or a nail in the foot). Fistulous withers (infections of the withers), and poll evil (infections of the poll of the head),also give rise to fistulas. In the case of weeping wounds or fistulas, the source of the problem must be dissected out,for the wound will not heal with irrigation alone. Once the cause is removed, treatment is the same as for abscesses

Flatulence

Anal flatulence in the horse is rarely offensive and is rarely a problem. It is almost always associated with a diet, particularly when the horse goes on to fresh diet. Some horses always break wind when they start.
Flatulent colic may arise from an obstruction bowel leading to a build-up of gas in the stomach_also occur when a hard-fed horse is given sudden lush green grass. New hay, especially if damp. may excess gas production. In these cases the animal has toms similar to those of spasmodic colic but the continuous and the animal frequently crouches but lies down. It will yawn, paw the ground and look Insides. There are frequent attempts at urination. A veterinary surgeon should be relieve the gas by stomach tube.

Fly Bites

Fly and other insect bites can cause a number of diseases in horses, particularly in Africa and South America. In Australia, for example, they develop the so-called Queen-itch. The bot-fly, although it does not bite the horse. irritates by its loud humming. As it circles around seek lay its eggs on the hair, it can annoy horses to the erg that they group together for defense, or else bolt to from it. Flies can annoy horses to such an extent that they may go off their food or lose weight. Flies congregating around the eyes can cause a conjunctivitis. Flies will also irritate wounds on a horse.

Founder

A common name for laminitis (fever of the foot).

Fractures

The term ‘fracture’ is given to the breaking of a bent cartilage. Criticism is often made in the press and public if a horse that breaks its leg is destroyed. Fracture is often caused by a kick from another horse. Or the animal may fall on its muzzle and fracture the lower jaw, or base of the skull or neck. Jumping may result in fracture of the legs, spine or pelvis. Spinal fracture can occur when the animal is cast for surgery. Struggling during recovery can result in fractured limbs. Horses while lungeing have fallen on their head and fractured their neck. Spontaneous fracture of the legs, vertebrae of the back, or the shoulder, can all occur even at slow work. It can occur as a result of muscular incoordination and is the most probable explanation of these spontaneous fractures when they occur.
Sometimes a distinct crack is heard. Great lameness is apparent immediately and there may be excessive mobility or deformity of the part. Grating or grinding may be felt on movement of the area. Inability to bear weight is strongly suggestive of fracture, but not conclusive. Muscular twitching may be present and patchy sweating may occur. Pain is usually present.
In cases involving the nose there is usually deformity and hemorrhage and breathing may be noisy because of obstruction of the nasal passages.
Fractures of the ribs may cause paralysis of a limb and,if complicated by a punctured chest wall, may allow air to pass to and fro from the chest.
In cases of fracture of the skull (sometimes caused by rearing up in a stall) hemorrhage from the ear is common. If the fracture is severe, hemorrhage may occur into the brain causing death. If fractures occur behind the mid-section of the neck, paralysis of the diaphragm may occur.
Fractures of the spine cause paralysis and inability to raise the hindquarters.
In fracture of the limbs with displacement, there will be shortening of the limb.
The diagnosis of a fracture may be quite easy or very difficult. A major fracture of a long bone is easy, but a split pastern, pelvic fracture, and fractures of minor bones are difficult. When in doubt, X-rays are advised. Fractures are always a serious affliction and it is best to consult a vet for diagnosis and available treatment, if any
The action of excessive cold on the skin may produce frost-bite, a condition resembling a burn. Horses are capable of withstanding very cold weather without suffering, as long as they are well fed and are allowed to grow their natural protective coat of long hair. Minor forms of frostbite can occur on the lower legs, particularly if the animal is forced to stand in mud and water in cold weather. The wet, cold conditions can cause death of the surface cells of the skin and damage to the deeper layers. As in burns, dilation of the small blood vessels of the skin occurs followed by oozing of fluid through their walls into the surrounding spaces. This results in the skin becoming swollen and painful. Sometimes the affected area may be the size of a matchbox. The condition is called mud fever.

Frost Bite

To prevent problems, do not wash the horse’s legs in wintertime but dry the legs thoroughly without delay. If winter pasturing the horse, avoid ground that easily be-comes waterlogged. Always make sure that animals get sufficient food to keep them in good general condition throughout the winter.

Galls and Saddle Sores

Girth galls and saddle sores are eroded areas of skin which can eventually die and slough out, leaving a nasty open sore. They are caused by constant pressure from ill-fitting gear.
Predisposing causes include:
• Low withers, allowing the saddle to be displaced forwards. High withers, which are apt to be compressed by the pommel (front arch) of the saddle. Narrow chest, making it difficult to tighten the girth,sufficiently to prevent the saddle moving.
• Poor condition, causing the skin to be severely compressed between the gear and protruding bones.
• An awkward or tired rider, who rolls about or sits lopsidedly.
• Sweating, or the skin being wet from rain.
Galls may sometimes be prevented by leaving the saddle on for about half an hour after the horse finishes work toallow the blood to return gradually to the squashed vesselsand thus prevent their rupture (hematoma) from sudden forcible distension. Gradual return of blood without rupture of vessels will still allow fluid through the bruised vessels into the subcutaneous tissues. Galls should betreated first with cold water and astringent lotions to prevent further distension, and afterwards with moist heat andmassage to promote absorption of the fluid.
Once a gall or rub does appear, the horse must not beworked until the sore is completely healed. Spray the area with acriflavine, triple dye, mercurochrome or an antibiotic solution. Commercial sprays are available. Determine the cause of the injury and if necessary adjust the gear. Thick foam saddle pads and sheepskin girth-covers are good insurance against recurrence.

Gelding

A gelding is a desexed male horse.

Glanders

Glanders is a highly contagious disease of the lymphatic system caused by bacteria. It causes nodule development,ulcerations and degeneration in the respiratory passages orin the skin. It is a very difficult disease to treat, and requires veterinary attention. Australia and New Zealand are free of the disease.
Infection be exercised in handling diseased animals, for example, at post-mortems.
In horses, mules, and donkeys, infection can result fromthe inhalation of particles of nasal discharge floating in the atmosphere of the stables. The most frequent source is ingestion of the organism in water or food that has become contaminated with nasal discharge through the medium of mangers, nosebags, buckets and waterers. Sponges, rags and other grooming cloths also commonly convey the disease directly from nose to nose.
The incubation period can vary from a few days to months. The signs of the disease present themselves in two forms:
Glanders form (localised in the respiratory pass-ages.) Discharge from one or both nostrils of a sticky nature, snuffling breathing, ulcerations on the nasal mucous membranes, hard lumps in the glands under the jaw on the side on which nasal symptoms are apparent. Variable amount of fever. In acute cases, the whole face may become swollen, and the respirations of a characteristic wheezing, snuffling or snoring type. While the symptoms of nasal glanders are quite unmistakable, they should be differentiated from other similar disease.
Farcy form (nodule formation in the lymphatics of the legs, head, neck or other parts) Nodules or ‘buds’ and ulcers along their course. The ulcers do not show any tendency to heal. Both glanders and farcy can occur together.
In the case of an outbreak, destroy all affected animals as the disease is to all intents and purposes incurable. Dispose of carcasses (burn or bury). Other animals on the property should be isolated, as should in-contact animals on farms either side of the diseased animals. Call the vet.

Grass Sickness

Grass sickness is a very well-known disease in Scotland where it occurs year by year in epidemic form. Sporadic cases occur in England and Sweden, but most other countries are free of the disease. In Scotland it affects all breeds and any age group except suckling foals. The disease was originally thought to come from grass, particularly in horses having access to grass in the late spring after having been housed and fed on hard feed during the winter, but more recent opinion is that it is caused by a virus. Grass sickness is almost invariably fatal, as it produces non-reversible paralysis of the entire alimentary tract. The very rare cases that do survive would generally be better off dead as suffering is extreme.

Greasy Heel

Greasy heel is a dermatitis of the back of the pastern, and is particularly prevalent in damp conditions. The skin is inflamed and has a pussy discharge which forms a scab. Often horizontal cracks in the skin occur. The condition can become so painful that lameness occurs. Horses with white or pale-colored hair in the pastern region are more susceptible, as are horses that have had the feather cut from the fetlock, allowing water to run down the back of the pastern rather than drip off the feather.
Treatment is to ensure that the pasterns are dry all the time. Wash the affected legs down with an antibacterial soap or shampoo to remove excess exudate, towel dry gently, then apply mercurochrome, acriflavine or triple dye twice daily to the area. If this fails, an antibiotic, antifungalcorhisone cream should be applied three times daily after thorough washing and drying.

Hematoma

A hematoma is a soft, often painless swelling filled wit]blood. It can be caused by a kick, or by running into a:object. It is best to confine the horse to a stable for ten days, so that the ruptured vessel wall has time to repair. If its in an area that will allow a firm bandage, this will reduce the eventual size of the hematoma.
Most hematomas will eventually disappear of their own accord without leaving a blemish. If drainage of an especially large hematoma is desired, let it settle for ten day first. Drainage may be done under surgical asepsis, otherwise the hematoma will easily become infected.

Harvest Mites

The larval form of the harvest, mite is found in ‘grass, ha:and other fodder. When present on the skin in protected parts such as the heels and back of the fetlock, they produce marked skin irritation and often play some part giving rise to cracked heels or the so-called heel bug. The:can cause irritations of the mane and tail to form a dermatitis. This causes constant rubbing and loss of hair from the mane and the root of the tail.

Head Shaking

This condition is sometimes met with in riding horses, making them uncontrollable and extremely dangerous to ride. It should not be confused with head shaking as an attempt to escape from the pain inflicted on the mouth by a heavy handed rider. Irritation from ear mites, a badly fitting built too tight a throat latch or a sinus infection can all cause the problem.

Heat-Stroke

Heat-stroke usually occurs on extremely hot, humid day in horses left to stand in the sun unprotected. Work in animals may also suffer heat exhaustion, but usually less severely. Heat-stroke is usually rapid in onset.
The symptoms are staggering, coma, labored breathing, slow an irregular pulse and usually a dry skin (dehydration). Rectal temperatures may reach 41.1°C or higher. Emergency treatment includes reducing body temperature by getting;the horse into the shade (an improvised shelter will do)spraying it with water, giving cold water enemas and applying cold packs to the head.
Veterinary attention is essential. Further treatment to combat shock involves administering saline or electrolyte intravenous drips. To help pre-vent laminitis, the feet should be immersed in cold water. Full recovery will take seven days of complete rest.

Hock Disorders Bog Spavin

Bog spavin is a soft distention of the joint membrane which is filled with joint fluid. It is most common in young animals or in those with more upright or straight legs. It is also more common in animals in which great strain is thrown upon the hocks (such as entire horses, aged stallions and breeding mares).
In recent acute cases the usual symptoms are heat, pain and marked lameness. Usually, however, the swelling is cold, painless, and fluctuating on pressure, and lameness is rare. Animals affected will commonly work well through-out their life without treatment and may experience few problems. In acute cases, cold applications with astringent lotions and massage are indicated. Provided there is no lameness or heat it is best left alone.

Bone Spavin

Bone spavin is the name given to a bone enlargement on the lower and inner aspect of the hock. It is regarded as hereditary disease. Conformation plays a large part. Whilst it may affect any hock, it is more likely to occur in hocks which when viewed from in front appear narrower or to taper towards the shank—and less likely in square hocks. Defective conformation also includes ‘small’ hocks, `tied-in’ hocks, ‘sickle-shaped’ hocks,and ‘cow’ hocks. These conformations constitute weaknesses, rendering the joint liable to inflammation under the stress of work.
Lameness is always most marked on starting after rest,but diminishes with exercise and in some instances disappears. The horse takes a short stride with the affected leg,the hock is not flexed normally, and as a result the toe of the shoe is frequently worn. Turning the horse in a small circle with the lame leg outside increases the lameness and the animal has a jerky way of taking the foot off the ground, possibly through increased pain when the joint is extended. Forced flexion of the joint will increase the lameness.
Hold the affected leg up in flexion for a minute or two and then release it and move the horse off. If the horse is lame from spavin there may be great aggravation of the lameness. It should be remembered that the same result will follow from sprained tendons, or any lameness at orbelow the hock.
In most instances the treatment for horses under twelve years of age is favorable—but not so favorable beyond this age. The best method of treatment is to pin-fire the affected area and apply a red mercurial blister into the punctures and around the whole enlargement. Repeat the blistering in about a month. By the end of the second month the animal should be better with no apparent lameness. If not, re-apply the blister.

Capped Hock

This condition is similar to capped elbow in that it is caused by a physical bruising of the bone of the hock. It is usually caused by the horse kicking its stable or float doors. This can be prevented by building a barrier in the stable or float that is about 60 centimeters wide at the height of the horse’s buttocks. A wooden or pipe rail will do the job. The condition will resolve itself (if not of longstanding) once physical contact stops, although the cure may be hastened by drainage of the area.

Curb

This is the name given to a swelling, as a result of a sprain,which is situated about a hand’s breadth below the point of the hock towards the inner side. It is seen in all breeds,but more commonly in harness and riding horses.
A frequent cause is landing on wet and slippery ground after jumping, and sliding along. Pulling horses up quickly onto their haunches or putting young horses at jumps too early are all predisposing causes. Bad conformation such as `sickle-shaped’ hocks or `tied-in’ hocks may predispose. Lameness may be present immediately after the accident. In the stable the leg is ‘favored’, with the heel raised and resting on the toe of the shoe. If made to move, the horse is inclined to go ‘on its toes’.
If the horse is not lame, treatment is not advisable. If there is lameness and swelling, the treatment advocated for sprained tendons should be followed. A wedge-heeled shoe is useful in the early stages. Sometimes lungeing four or five times a week over a low wall or pole is helpful. The jump is increased by a few centimeters each day till it reaches 1.2 meters.

Occult Spavin

This is the name given when there is no bony outgrowth as in bone spavin, but only an arthritis. The difference between this and bone spavin is that with occult spavin the lameness is continuous and does not diminish with exercise. In most cases the lameness becomes more pronounced with exercise.
The behavior of the lame leg when turning, wearing of the shoe at the toe, dropping of the quarter on the lame side and all other symptoms, are present as in bone spavin. There is no appreciable enlargement.
When this cause of lameness is diagnosed, line-firing-around the whole of the joint (but excluding the front of the bend of the joint) is necessary followed by rest for six to eight months. The prognosis, even with treatment, is unfavorable.

String halt

In this condition one or both of the hind legs are lifted in an exaggerated movement caused by over flexion of thehock. The cause of the disease is unknown, but it is thought that nervous diseases or degeneration of the sciatic nerve play a major role. Sometimes the condition occurs follow-ing damage to tendons as they pass over the nerves. Adhesions develop which interfere with the nerve. The con-dition can be variable ranging from very mild flexion at the walk to a marked jerking of the foot toward the abdomen. In most cases the condition is exaggerated when the horse is turning. Any breed may be affected. Mild cases do not hinder the horse’s usefulness
Surgery to remove a section of muscle tendon is the best that can be done and gives moderate success. Thorough
This is a swelling at the rear of the hind-leg just above the point of the hock and about 5 centimeters in front of the Achilles tendon. When pressed on one side with a finger,it will bulge out on the other side.
It is often present in young horses that have not done any work. Straight hocks tend to favor distention by allowing relaxation of the sheath around the tendons. Horses that are pulled up suddenly from galloping (especially in soft soil) or those that rear or kick violently are predisposed. In recently injured cases the area is hot, tense and painful. Usually, however, as in bog spavin the area is cold and not tender to touch. As the membrane becomes distended it bulges upwards and is evident on the inner aspect.
In acute cases cooling astringent applications are best,followed by pressure bandages, which should be applied most carefully, a layer of cotton-wool being moulded during the progression of the horse. Lameness may be continuous or intermittent. It is governed a great deal by the pace of the animal, being very noticeable at one pace and not at another—for example, in splint lameness the animal may walk soundly but trot lame. Exercise may increase or decrease the symptoms. In most instances of muscle injury the lameness becomes less during exercise but returns after the animal has cooled off. In an animal lame from occult spavin the lameness is almost always continuous. Lameness arising from acute arthritis is constant. A horse lame from bone disease or a strained tendon may merely appear to be stepping carefully.
When a horse becomes lame three things have to be determined: Which leg is it, or is more than one involved?Where is the seat of lameness? What is the cause of the lameness?
Lameness in the horse is such a vast subject and requires such expert knowledge in diagnosis and treatment that it is far outside the scope of this book. In fact, there are whole books written on lameness in the horse. By all means examine the horse yourself and if you can locate a swelling in the tendon, an abscess in the foot, a nail in the sole, thrush or other infection, or swelling of the fetlock joint, or seedy toe, well and good. But beyond those common ailments it is best to seek the advice of a good equine veterinarian.

Infections

Infections in the newborn foal, usually bacterial in origin,frequently involve the joints. Such infections (navel-ill,joint-ill) are sudden in onset—the foal goes off suck, is dull and dejected and has a high temperature, 40-41°C. Often pneumonia develops, characterized by increased respiratory rate and even respiratory distress. Some cases show abdominal pain and a degree of diarrhea. Many of these cases die very quickly unless antibiotic therapy is instituted very early. Once the foal’s temperature drops below nor-mal, treatment is rarely of any value.
Early sign of a cold — a slight purulent (pussy) discharge from the nose.
Infections in horses can be caused by viruses, bacteria,fungi or protozoa. They can be insect-transmitted or transmitted from one horse to the other directly by droplets(by coughing or sneezing). A generalized infection is usually indicated by a rise in temperature, loss of appetite,lethargy and usually some other symptoms such as diarrhea, pussy discharge from the nose, or coughing.
A localized infection is indicated by local swelling, heat and pain—for example, infection following a splinter under the skin or a nail in the foot. In all cases of infection it is best to consult a veterinary surgeon unless you know exactly what is causing the problem.

Infertility in the Mare

Infertility has a number of causes, one of the most common being failure to cycle. This may be merely the wrong time of the year—most mares cycle naturally from spring to the end of summer, with a peak time around summer. Sometimes failure to cycle is a behavioral problem which can be solved by putting the mare with other cycling mares. Sometimes it is a hormonal problem may be solved by the injection of artificial hormone. So=mares are silent cyclers, giving no indication that then season unless they are put out with a stallion paddock-served. The stallion can detect cycling.

Infectious Diseases

In most of the developed countries of the world, the most important infectious disease of horses are the influenza viruses which cause upper respiratory tract infections andviral abortion. Strangles is also highly contagious. There are many other infectious diseases, some of which are particularly prevalent in Third World countries. For information about these diseases, it is best to contact your veterinary surgeon.

Jaundice

Yellowish discoloration of the conjunctiva, the mucus membranes of the mouth and in the female the vulvathe common signs of jaundice. The urine nearly contains bile, giving it a yellow to orange colour. Jais seen in cases of equine piroplasmosis, dice in foals, infectious equine anaemia, protozoa viral diseases, chronic copper poisoning, phenothpoisoning, pasturing on rape or other poisonous plants, the bites of some snakes. Other symptoms such as fever, loss of appetite and discomfort may occur depend on the disease causing the jaundice.
The treatment of jaundice is dependent on the condition always requires veterinary attention.

Kidney Disease (Nephritis)

Kidney disease is very rare in the horse. Horseoften mistakenly call ‘tying-up’ or mild azoturia, disease. The muscles overlying the kidneys are some of first to be affected with the ‘tying-up’ syndrome. M 1–trainers give the horse a diuretic ball when they think inflammation of the kidneys. This tends to clear condition and relieve the soreness in the back simply cause it allows the muscles to be flushed out by the increased water intake caused by the administration diuretic ball.
True kidney disease is very rare but may be cause chemical poisons such as mercury, arsenic, copper, and carbon tetrachloride. Substances toxic kidneys are also produced during azoturia. Treatment depends on isolating the cause. Usually the horse has sufficient functional tissue to keep it alive but secretes volumes of poorly concentrated urine.
`Flooding of the box’, a condition in which the hot urinates frequently and drinks copious quantities of water is called water diabetes, and is caused by a deficiency of hormone which controls fluid retention. Injections available to supplement this deficiency and should be under veterinary supervision.

Lameness

Lameness is any condition that affects one or more during the progression of the horse. Lameness may be continuous or intermittent. It is governed a great deal by the pace of the animal, being very noticeable at one pace and not at another—for example, in splint lameness the animal may walk soundly but trot lame. Exercise may increase or decrease the symptoms. In most instances of muscle injury the lameness becomes less during exercise but returns after the animal has cooled off. In an animal lame from occult spavin the lameness is almost always continuous. Lameness arising from acute arthritis is constant. A horse lame from bone disease or a strained tendon may merely appear to be stepping carefully.
When a horse becomes lame three things have to be determined: Which leg is it, or is more than one involved?Where is the seat of lameness? What is the cause of the lameness?
Lameness in the horse is such a vast subject and requires such expert knowledge in diagnosis and treatment that it is far outside the scope of this book. In fact, there are whole books written on lameness in the horse. By all means examine the horse yourself and if you can locate a swelling in the tendon, an abscess in the foot, a nail in the sole, thrush or other infection, or swelling of the fetlock joint, or seedy toe, well and good. But beyond those common ailments it is best to seek the advice of a good equine veterinarian.

Lung Conditions

The most common conditions affecting the lungs are pneumonia and bronchopneumonia, which are inflammatory conditions caused by a virus or bacteria, by fluid introduced during drenching, or by heavy infestation with large roundworms. The signs are heavy breathing and sometimes a cough and nasal discharge. Pneumonia is always serious and should be treated quickly with antibiotics.
Pleurisy is another inflammatory condition involving the pleural membrane which covers the lungs and lines the chest cavity. It is very painful, again very serious, and should be treated with antibiotics. It generally occurs with,or after, pneumonia. In both of these diseases the earliest symptoms are rapid and shallow respirations, fever, loss of appetite and dullness. The animal is not inclined to move.
The horse should be kept warm, rugged and put in under shelter in a loose box and allowed plenty of fresh air. Inhalation of Friars Balsam or Vicks VapoRub are useful. A dab of such an ointment can be placed just inside the nos-trils of the horse. An old remedy for relief of respiratory distress is to rub mustard paste on to the chest, add one-third of a cup of mustard to 4 cups of lard, mix, and rub the paste over the chest walls for two minutes.

Maggots

Maggots are the larval stages of flies. They sometimes invade wounds, causing fly-strike. An infested wound should be cleaned up using a hose and any maggots physically removed. If there are sinuses hiding the maggots, an insec-ticidal powder can be applied to the wound. Although the idea turns most people’s stomachs, maggots rarely cause much damage to a wound—rather they tend to clean up any debris (that is, dead or decaying tissue). The main risk is that they may introduce bacterial infection. Prevent their appearance by the use of fly repellants

Malnutrition

A healthy horse is one kept in a slim condition with the ribswell covered—overweight horses are always in danger of suffering laminitis (founder). Horses in poor condition are usually suffering from simple malnutrition. Horses arelarge and expensive to keep and many people cut cornerson feeding. (Other factors contributing to poor conditionmay be worms, bad teeth, cold weather, or an underlyingdisease problem.

Manure Eating

This can be due to a vitamin/mineral deficiency in which case it is called ‘pica’ . Place alump of rock salt in the feed tin and if necessary make clayavailable. Clay is a good source of calcium and is palatableto horses.
It can also be a ‘vice’ or due to a dietary imbalance.Make sure the diet is balanced and adequate in quantity.

Mouth Disorder

• Dry mouth
Dry mouth is a condition where the mucous membranes become very dry due to lack of saliva production. This isseen in cases of atropine poisoning (atropine is the activeingredient in Belladonna—an old remedy included incough pastes). In other cases there is no apparent cause. Inthe case of steeple chasers or polo ponies which suffer drymouth because of excitement, the administration of 225 grams of glucose in warm water in the last meal before racing or playing polo is advisable. An abnormal desire for water is seen in fever, water diabetes, and certain forms of gastritis, enteritis and kidney disease. Fever may cause horses to stand over water, just playing with it with their lips without actually drinking.
A gag locks the mouth open for examination of the mouth or teeth treatment.
• Glossitis (Inflammation of the tongue)
Glossitis is fairly common in the horse. The causes include direct injuries, reaction to irritant substances (biting at blisters applied to the legs, licking at chemicals), foreign bodies(grass seeds, splinters) in the tongue, irregularities of the teeth causing the horse to bite its tongue, and careless handling of the tongue during the process of rasping teeth or paste worming. Bits may also cause serious wounds.
In mild cases of glossitis apply a simple antiseptic mouth-wash, such as a 3 per cent solution of boric acid,and feed a diet of boiled porridge gruel and milk. Use a a large large disposable syringe without a needle to apply the mouth-wash. When the tongue is swollen, repeated cold-water irrigation will help. Some horses will tolerate irrigation with a slow-running hose.
• Lampas
This is a swelling of the soft palate just behind the incisor teeth. It is usually due to an inflammation of the gums in the young horse, when shedding the temporary or milk teeth. In the majority of cases the swelling will subside without medical treatment. It is a fallacy that lampas will affect the health of the horse.
In a parrot mouth the upper incisor teeth overlap the lower incisors.
Parrot mouth and undershot jaw
These are congenital deformities. In parrot mouth the up-per incisor teeth overlap the lower, and in undershot jaw the lower incisors overlap the top incisors. Such animals have difficulty in feeding. Bad cases may be unable to graze and hand feeding will be necessary.
• Quidding
A horse is said to be quidding when its food is rolled and twisted about in the mouth and finally ejected into the manger as a bolus. In most cases it is due to dental irregularities and can be readily fixed by a competent person ‘floating’ (rasping) the teeth.
• Shear mouth
Shear mouth is a condition in which the upper and lower molars overlap like the blades of shears. It is usually seen in old horses. Treatment is not satisfactory. It is usually due to irregularities in wear and age changes involving the shape of the lower jaw

Nail Prick

Sometimes when horses are being shod, the farrier may place a nail too near to the inner part of the wall and the sensitive tissues. In such a case the nail should be with-drawn immediately and the tract disinfected with tincture of iodine. If the nail enters the inner part of the wall it can cause a painful wound which can last a long time. In most instances, however, soaking in a bucket of warm water (with four tablespoons of epsom salts added) four or five times a day for a few days relieves the pain.

Guttural Pouch

The guttural pouch is a blind sac on either side throat of the horse. It is a distention of the Eustachian tube—its function is unknown.
They are quite susceptible to infection introduced way of the Eustachian tubes, usually being the aftermath strangles or other respiratory disease. There is a claritoim nasal discharge, which appears only during feeding when the head is lowered to eat from the ground, or to taithe bit, or during exercise. There may be interference wswallowing and respiration, and swelling at the base of ‘Lbear behind the jaw bone. Treatment is surgical. Call the veterinary surgeon.
The other problem affecting the guttural pouches is rpmpanitis (filled with air). It is found in foals or horses upone year. It results from a congenital defect which foa one-way valve resulting in the pouches inflating. Signare obvious. The area below the ear is distended and soft likeballoon. Treatment is surgical.

Nasal Discharges

A slight watery nasal discharge can be quite normal,merely a reaction to dust, but excessive watery dischargecan indicate early viral infection. This is generally ac-companied by a dull eye, loss of appetite, a slight fever anda cough. Pussy discharges from the nose indicate advancedviral infections, head colds caused by influenza viruses, andbacterial infections such as glanders and strangles. Pussydischarges can also indicate pneumonia or bronchial pneu-monia. A foul-smelling discharge from the nose indicates decaying roots of teeth, or possibly a tumour in the nasal passages. If the discharge is watery, or slightly pussy. The horse is bright, is eating and does not seem to be severely affected by the condition, there is no need for alarm.
Keep the horse warm and give plenty of fresh feed. Wipe the nostrils out regularly, and apply some Balsam or Vicks VapoRub inside the nostrils. Injection 500 milligrams of ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) daily are as helpful. If the horse is coughing, it may be relieved after applying to the back of the tongue one of the available cough pastes.
However, if the nasal discharge becomes copious. the horse has a temperature higher than 39.4°C, or is off its feed, then the vet should be called.

Navicular Disease

Not all horses affected with navicular disease are in painand not all will go lame, but in most cases attention isdrawn to the problem because the horse is lame. Usually the horse first goes lame very suddenly; the lameness may disappear or settle down to a slight lameness. The horse may be uneasy and restless, adopting a slight rocking action. As time goes on it points its fore feet; if both feet area affected the horse will point first one foot and then the other. Navicular disease rarely affects the hind feet. If thehorse is taken out and warmed up by exercise, the lameness will probably be relieved; but if the horse is left to cool offand then moved again when cold, the lameness will re-appear. For the first few steps it will be more severe. Observe the action—flexion and extension of the lower pasternand the foot will be diminished, and the toe of the shoemay show wear as the horse puts its toes down first. This solid, block-like action of the foot will increase as the disease progresses. The stride becomes shorter, and as the feetare put down flat, like a block, the term ‘blocking lameness’is used. Sole bruising from constant landing on the toe should be kept in mind when using hoof testers.
The first corrective shoe for the victim of the disease isone that has a roll toe. This results in the horse’s foot`breaking over’ more quickly, so there tends to be a slight shortening of stride. The heel of the shoe should be thickened so that it is about one and a half times the thick-ness of the toe of the shoe. The outer half of the sole surface of the shoe is chamfered to three-quarters of its thick-ness from the last nail hole back, and the inner edge of thesole surface is fined down so that it is no longer pressingon the wall of the foot. Cutting the nerve (neurectomy) should be discussed with your vet. The prognosis in all cases of navicular disease is unfavourable.

Neurecto

Cutting of a nerve, as a treatment for navicular disease.

Old Age

The first five years of a horse’s life may be considered equivalent to the first twenty years of our life. At seventeen years of age, which probably represents fifteen years’ work, most horses are past their physical best. Deterioration of their teeth probably prevents most horses from reaching aripe old age. In general, ponies are much longer lived than horses. Instances are on record of animals attaining the age fifty, and one is attested to have lived to sixty-three, but the average for ponies is probably thirty-five and for horses thirty. As horses get very old it becomes more and more difficult to keep weight on them and emaciation is the usualcause of death.
The following points will help keep the aged horse ingood health.
• Worm every three months.
• Have horse’s teeth checked every six months.
• Rug the horse in cold weather.
• Give regular and gentle exercise.
• Hand-feed as soon as there is any sign of weight loss.Trim the feet every six weeks.
• Groom and pick out feet daily.
• Opening Up Behind
In this condition the anal sphincter relaxes, allowing air topass into the rectum. It usually occurs after a long trainingcampaign and is due to fatigue. The horse should be rested. Good results are also achieved with anabolic steroid injec-tions administered by the vet.

Open Knees

Open knees is the term used to describe a horizontal depression at the top of the knee in immature horses. Horses should not be given hard work until this disappears. If worked, other conditions are more likely to occur such as hind soreness, carpitis, chipped bones in the knee, and tendon problems.

Patella Locking

Locked patella is a condition usually seen in horses that are very straight in the hindlegs. It occurs more frequently in horses just out of the paddock in debility and poor con-dition in the initial stages of their training. The leg locks in a stiff, outstretched position. To unlock the leg, push thehorse backwards or alternatively wrap a soft rope around the pastern and pull the leg forward. In less extreme cases the patella slips in and out of position as the horse moves,and a clicking noise may be heard. The horse characteristically drops its toe. Call your vet and discuss the problem, as it is likely to recur. Surgery is available.

Pedal Bone Fracture

This is a fracture in the lowermost bone of the leg. The bone is within the hoof. The cause can be as simple asturning quickly or landing the wrong way. Horses suffer this type of a fracture when racing. The signs are acute lameness and the sole of the foot is very sensitive to pressure. In most instances fractures of this nature will heal readily with a shoe that has a bar across the heel and fourclips equally spaced around the circumference of the hoofwall. This holds the foot together and the fracture in place. Keep the horse strictly confined in a box for eight weeks. It should then be rested for six months in a soft paddock and X-rayed to determine that healing is complete. If the fracture involves the joint and the horse is very valuable. Surgery can be performed by a veterinary surgeon to compress the fracture site with screws.

Pedal Osteitis

Pedal osteitis is an inflammatory condition, usually caused by repeated concussion, in the last bone of the foot (which is enclosed by the hoof). It is one of the most common causes of lameness and is usually found in horses that work at a fast pace such as jumpers, race horses and standard-breds. The inflammatory reaction in the foot begins to dis-solve the bone, causing tenderness. The horse may stepshort, particularly if it is made to run over loose gravel so that the pain is accentuated. X-rays will confirm the diagnosis.
The most effective treatment is to turn the horse out onto soft land for six months. If the horse must continue working, it should be shod with special light, wide shoes.which sit on the wall of the hoof to eliminate any pressureon the sole. The heel should be thick, and the toe half the thickness of the heel. The toe of the shoe should be more square than round and rolled at the bottom. This producesa slight rocker effect

Poisoning

Demulcents are frequently used in the treatment of poisoning. These are drugs of a viscous character which protect mucous membranes from irritation—for example, gumacacia, purified honey, glycerine and starch.

Arsenic Poisoning

Chronic arsenic poisoning affects the complete body haircoat. The usual symptoms are a long-haired coat, heavyscurf development and emaciation, even though the appetite is normal. The usual cause is over-use of arsenical tonics. These tonics are used to stimulate the appetite of horses in full work. The usual method of diagnosis is ill-thrift after a time in training when arsenical tonics are known to be used. Many horses make a slow recovery if the cumulative dose is not too high. Many others die unless restored to good condition by supplementary feeding on arsenical tonic with gradual weaning off the tonic as the condition improves. Treatment with injectable organic arsenic compound gives a dramatic response. During the administration of the tonic, the horse’s body becomes dependent (addicted) and a sudden withdrawal causes collapse ofthe horse’s metabolic system.

Copper Poisoning

Chronic copper poisoning can occur where low molybdenum levels enhance copper storage in pastures. Treat-ment is to use demulcents and iron filings which attract andfix the copper, or potassium ferrocyanide which produces a comparatively insoluble and harmless salt.
Acute cases have severe diarrhea and colic with characteristic blue-green mucous membranes. Chronic cases have thirst, no appetite, red-colored urine and jaundice. If detected and treated early, the prognosis is good.

Lead Poisoning

Acute lead poisoning is very rare in the horse. It can result from pasturing near rifle ranges and picking up bulletspray, grazing on pastures near smelting furnaces, drinking water from lead piping recently installed and licking lead batteries and paint. Symptoms include rigors, colic, grinding of the teeth and constipation, followed by diarrhea.
Under no circumstances should oil be given in any form as this renders the lead more soluble. Large doses of epsomsalts-1 kilogram of epsom salts in 9 litres of water—should be given, thus bringing about the formation of insoluble lead sulphate. Prognosis depends on the amount ingested but is usually favourable if treated early.
Other types of poisoning include the ingestion of such things as rodenticides, insecticides, fumigants and molds. In most cases there are nospecific antidotes and treatment consists of controlling symptoms. Where the poison is known, contact your vet orthe poisons centre at a hospital.

Poisonous Plants

As a general rule animals will not eat poisonous plants ifthere is plenty of other food available. Inadvertent poisoning can happen—for example, poisoning from ragwort included in hay.
Acorn poisoning occurs in early spring when grass isscarce and the horse eats the new green leaves of the oaktree. Cases resemble impaction colic. Treatment consists oflarge doses of liquid paraffin.
Bracken poisoning can be caused by the green plants,and by bracken cut in the green state, then dried andstacked. The poison is an enzyme which destroys vitaminB1 and is cumulative. There is progressive loss of condition, a general unthrifty appearance and a slow pulse.The appetite remains fairly good but the horse loses its rotund belly and becomes tucked-up and hollow in the flanks. Treat with repeated injections of vitamin B1.
A utumn crocus or meadow saffron will poison horses ifthey eat the leaves in the spring. The symptoms are ab-dominal pain, violent purgation and straining. The only treatment is using demulcents to soothe the bowels.
Privet poisoning causes a loss of power in the hind-quarters, the mucous membranes become congested, andthe pupils are dilated. Death occurs in thirty-six to forty-eight hours. Symptoms of colic and unsteadiness in the gaitare common. Treatment is to relieve the horse of the colicand treat the horse symptomatically. Horses usually dievery quickly if they have taken a reasonable dose of privet.
Ragwort poisoning usually follows the ingestion of hayharvested with ragwort. The common symptoms are colicwith subsequent death at variable periods up to a few days.In the chronic case there is a loss of condition, loss of appe-tite, dullness, the gait is staggering and there is constipation, or sometimes diarrhea. Because the condition affects the liver, mucous membranes are pale and may be jaundiced. There is no satisfactory treatment.
Vetch can also induce liver damage in the horse and the horse will be sensitive to sunlight.
Yew is by far the commonest form of plant poisoning encountered in Great Britain. All parts of the tree are poisonous. The alkaloid taxine is the active principle andoccurs in the leaves of all species but in only a small proportion in the berries. Horses will eat yew at any time, and cases of yew poisoning usually occur when straying from pastures or eating overhanging branches. The alkaloid is rapidly absorbed and exercises its chief effect on the heart. Symptoms—rarely observed, because the animal is usually already dead when found—are trembling, difficulty in breathing, collapse, and then death within five minutes. Treatment must of course be immediate. Purgatives and demulcents are indicated and stimulants such as large quantities of strong coffee should be given frequently. It is best if purgatives are given by injection to ensure a quick action. The heart’s action should be supported by injections of adrenalin.
Walkabout disease (Kimberley horse disease) is commonin north-western Australia and the Northern Territory. Itis due to ingestion of certain native plants restricted to areas with low river banks and flats which are subject to periodic flooding. Cases are seen mainly in the wet seasonand involve a loss of weight, depression alternating withperiods of excitement, and compulsive walking. There is no treatment and the prognosis is poor.
Birdsville horse disease is seen in south-western Queens-land and central Australia. It is usually seen in summer in average seasons about six weeks after rain. It is due to the ingestion of Indigophera; the minimum toxic amount is 4 kilograms per day for at least two weeks. The symptoms are rapid and extreme loss of weight, loss of appetite, depression, sleepiness and toe dragging. There is no treatment, but an animal may recover completely if it is only mildly affected.
Coastal ataxia is seen along a 450-kilometer wide strip of the central Queensland coast in horses on overgrazed paddocks in which Gomphrena has become the dominant plant. This is readily eaten by horses, but large quantities have to be eaten over a month or more for symptoms to develop. Symptoms include dullness, loss of appetite, sway-ing of the hind quarters and dragging of the toes, and feet placed wide apart with swaying of the body from side to side. There are no known treatments; prognosis is poor.
Selenosis (also known as change-of-hoof disease, alkali disease, blind staggers). Selenium toxicity is associated with eating plants called Morinda neptunia and Astragalus, which are found in various parts of the world. If the ani-mals are diagnosed early, treatment with sodium arseniteor arsenilic acid is useful. Selenosis usually affects the mane, tail and hooves. The horse has a stilted gait with unnatural stance. The mane and tail hairs fall out and there is a transverse separation of the wall of the hoof at the coronary band. Acute cases may slough the hooves.
The list of poisons and poison plants is never ending.Contact your vet or local Department of Agriculture for more comprehensive lists.

Poll Evil

Poll evil and fistulous withers are similar conditions which affect separate regions. Both are caused by a physical injury to a bony prominence—either the poll at the top of the head or the withers. Ultimately an infection is set up which leads to a deep-seated death of tissues and the development of a constant pussy sinus. Poultices or antiphlogistine should be applied to the area. Once sinus formation is present, culture the organism and determine which antibiotic touse. Usually these conditions require surgical eradication of the dead tissue before the sinus will clear up.

Pot-belly

A sign indicating worm infestation in the horse.

Quittor

This is the term applied to a persistent, pussy sore opening at or near the coronet. The cause in most cases is direct injury such as being stepped on by another horse, thus injuring the lateral cartilage. It may also arise in an indirect way following an infection within the hoof when the outlet in the sole is obstructed and the pus moves upwards, following the line of least resistance. This may be the resultof a puncture to the foot, a corn or a sandcrack.
Early cases of quittor will respond to irrigation of thetract with a 20 per cent silver nitrate solution, followed inten minutes by saline solution to neutralise the silver ni-trate. In chronic cases successful treatment depends uponremoval of the dead or infected tissue; in most cases thisinvolves surgery on the cartilage.

Rickets

Signs of rickets can occur in horses up to three, but foals between six months and twelve months are commonly affected. In older horses demineralization of the bone can occur as a result of calcium or vitamin C deficiencies.
Rickets in horses is primarily a disease of the bones rather than the joint itself. (The epiphysis is either the joint and is the growth centre for the long arthritis of the knee, the pastern, and the fetlock joints may also occur. The arthritis of these joints follows stresses resulting from conformational charto rickets.

Ringbone

Ringbone is a new bone growth which may involve thearticular surfaces of the pastern or coffin joints or may sur-round the articular surfaces and interfere with overlyingtendons and structures causing lameness. It can be causedby wounds such as wire cuts or abrasions to the pasterns,or it may be due to a congenital abnormality. The treatment of the condition is usually unsuccessful, but it may help the horse to be given anti-inflammatory agents. Corrective shoeing consists of shortening the toe and applyinga full roller motion shoe. The prognosis for ringbone involving the joints is poor. For ringbone outside the joints, prognosis is guarded

Roaring

This is a condition usually seen in thoroughbreds or hunt-ing horses and is only noticed at a very fast gait. The horsemakes a roaring noise because a paralysed vocal cord actsas a reed in the passage of wind through the larynx. This may act as an obstruction to the free passage of air and make the horse breathless at speed. The condition can be corrected by surgery, but unless the animal is very valuable, surgery is not recommended.

Runny Eyes

Runny eyes may indicate infestation by habronema

Ruptured Bladder

Ruptured bladder occurs in the first thirty-six to seventy-two hours, with the foal initially straining and then its abdomen beginning to swell. The foal fails to urinate. The mucous membranes become pale and the foal is unwilling to nurse. Some foals may show signs of blindness, while others convulse. Avet should be called immediately to perform surgery to save the foal.

Salivation

Excessive production of saliva may arise from inflammation of the mouth, abnormal conditions of the teeth and the presence of foreign bodies such as a stick caught between the teeth. Paralysis of the pharynx, the esophagus or the lips may prevent saliva being swallowed so that the horse drools. It is often seen in greedy horses anticipating feed

Sandcrack

Sandcrack is a vertical crack or split in the wall of the hoof. Such cracks vary in length and depth, but true sandcrack extends from the upper border (coronet) to the lower bor-der of the wall. It begins at or near the coronet. Some sandcracks are so deep that they reach the sensitive tissues.These tissues may suffer direct injury, and foreign bodiessuch as grit or sand may gain access, causing the area to become infected. When this occurs, there is pain and the horse may be very lame.
Small shallow cracks that extend upwards from the edge of the hoof should not be ignored, but they usually cause little trouble. They arise as a direct injury and in these cases, the horn is usually dry and brittle. When a horse puts its weight on a foot affected with a sandcrack, the crack tends to open and shut, causing the split to extend. Any new horn growth continues to split. Remedies are designed to stop further splitting of the hoof and allow a sandcrack to grow out. The simplest method is to rasp across the topof the split if it begins at the bottom of the wall. If the split begins at the coronet, rasp around the bottom. Othermethods include transfixing with a horizontal clenchedhorseshoe nail, filling with epoxy glue or plastic, and corrective shoeing using clips either side of the crack.

Seedy Toe

Seedy toe is the formation of cavities between the outerwall of the hoof and the inner sensitive layers. It usually occurs around the toe area, right at the edge of the sole andthe white line, but may occur anywhere between the toe and the heel. To correct this condition, allow the blacksmith to trim the foot back as far as possible. The cavity of the seedy toe should then be thoroughly cleaned out, disinfected with tincture of iodine and packed with stockholm tar. The growth of good new horn can be promoted by rubbing a light blister around the coronet ofthe foot.

Sesamoid Bone Disorders

The sesamoids are two small bones at the rear of the fetlock joint. They can be fractured in animals that perform vig-orous sports, such as racehorses or endurance horses. A more common condition is sesamoiditis which is an inflammatory process around the top of the sesamoid dueto tearing of the suspensory ligament. In these cases the animal should be rested and poultices applied to the joint.In the case of fractures the horse will need a twelve months’spell; seek the advice of a veterinary surgeon.

Shin Soreness

This is a condition seen in young horses, usually yearlings or two-year-olds, which are suddenly asked to perform galloping exercises. Work over excessively hard ground ex-acerbates the problem. The horse steps short in front, andif rubbed down the front of the cannon bone it reacts pain-fully. In the latter stages of shin soreness there may be aswelling about midway down the cannon bone. If the workis stopped, the condition will recede. Applications of poultices to the area will hasten a return to normal, but a spell of several months is essential. It is due to immaturity of thebones.

Shivering

This is generally regarded as a nervous disease. When the horse lifts a hindleg, or moves backwards, the limb is suddenly raised, semi-flexed and moved out away from the body, shaking and shivering in suspension. It occurs sometimes after diseases such as influenza, after strangles or asevere Tall is seen Frequently riaderrm violent sports such as polo and polocrosse, and sometimes in race-horses. Shivering is also seen in the initial stages of a fever or when the horse is cold, but this is natural, not a disease.There is no treatment for a true shiverer and the horse is regarded as unsound.

Sidebone

Forms in the external cartilages in the heel region. Flexibility ofthe heels is lost. The cartilages are enlarged and tender, with hardening which causes lameness.

Skin Disorders

• Bacterial Acne (Saddle Boils, Dermatitis, Heat Rash)
Commonly seen under the saddle-cloth, over the back, loinand rib cage or wherever harness has contact with thehorse’s skin. It is frequently caused by dirty harness, andit affects sweaty and ungroomed horses kept in unhygienic conditions. They are small (1-2 mm) areas of raised skin which are extremely painful and hot. The sores usually have a sticky yellow discharge and form scabs. This con-dition should not be confused with Queensland itch, flybite and food allergies. Harness from affected horses should be sterilized and a fresh saddle-cloth used for each ride. The condition is not infectious. The condition can be cured by shampooing with an iodine shampoo for three consecutive days; recovery takes about seven days.
• Bursattee (Leeches, kunkers, Florida Horse Leech, Phycomycosis, Swamp Cancer and Equine Granuloma)
This condition usually appears-on the legs and lower abdo-men, the head, the neck and the ribs. Is is caused by a fungal-like organism. It appears as a chronic, granulatedwound covered with a mucoid discharge, draining from one or several sinuses. Severe itchiness is present, and self-mutilation is common. It should be differentiated from sarcoid and wounds caused by parasitic larvae. Bursattee is best treated by surgical excision of the lesions and twice weekly intravenous sodium iodide injections for four weeks.
• Cattle Rick Bites
Cattle tick bites are usually found on the legs and lower portions of the body but can affect the horse all over. They leave small, swollen areas with raised hair. Infestation inlarge numbers will cause loss of condition. The horse may bite affected parts, causing self-mutilation. Remove ticks with your fingers or with tweezers. Spray the horse with 0.025 per cent Dursban or 0.25 per cent Malathion(fortnightly) to prevent infestation.
• Dandruff
Dandruff is a condition in which the skin becomes scaly, and the coat dry and dirty. In some instances the skin b-comes reddened and the hair falls out. Dandruff may resultfrom lack of exercise and grooming.
Sweating should be induced by lungeing or riding, and the animal should be thoroughly washed with a medicated soap or shampoo. It is essential to leave a medicated shampoo in contact with the skin for at least fifteen to thirty minutes. Then ensure that all of the soap is rinsed off andthe animal dried thoroughly. The animal’s diet should include a generous quantity of carrots and 60 milliliters of linseed oil daily. The animal should also be examined for worm infestation. Sometimes a course of tonics is useful.
• Equine Coital Exanthema
In equine coital exanthema (in the male horse) the penis and reflection of the prepuce or (in the female horse) the external skin and internal mucous membranes of the vulva are affected with multiple discrete sores. The lesions first appear as slight wounds or watery blisters which quickly change to a yellowish dead type of ulcer. The cause is avirus. It is usually self-limiting, running its course in four-teen to twenty-eight days. Sexual rest is essential, as the disease is highly contagious. There are no after-effects ofthe disease and it is not notifiable.
• Irritant Dermatitis
Irritant dermatitis can appear on the surface of any part of the horse’s body. Usually there is severe irritation with self-mutilation caused by biting or by rubbing the body sur-faces on fences. There are weeping areas. Generally the hair is roughened and the skin is hypersensitive to scratch-ing. The cause can be contact with irritant chemicals such as Stockholm tar, kerosene or insecticides, mange and Queensland itch cures, or bacterial infection.
Shampoo the entire horse and wash all soap from the body. Apply a 2.5 per cent lime sulphur wash to all affected areas. Antibiotic corticosteroid ointments can be applied to local areas of dermatitis.
• Lice Infestation
Lice frequent long-haired areas—manes and tails. Heavy infestation may occur all over the body. It may occur as district outbreaks transmitted by mutual grooming, birds or unhygienic harness. Usually there is intense itching and the horse rubs the affected site vigorously. This is associated with loss of hair on the body and scrubbing of the hairs onthe mane and tail. Horses will sometimes bite the infested areas. Self-trauma can make the bites look like Queenslanditch, mange or stable-fly bite. Clip the mane if possible and wash the horse with 0.5 per cent dieldrin solution or 0.1 percent DDT solution. Repeat in several days’ time. Chorioptic mange with the typical hair loss and scurfing ofthe skin.
• Mange
Mange in a horse is usually confined to the legs below the knee and hock, but in severe cases it may extend to the belly and the inside of the front legs and groin. It is caused by a small mite. Affected areas become inflamed, the skin flakes and becomes cracked with inflammatory exudate. Horses stamp their feet, bite their legs, and rub their legs with their head.
The disease will transmit between horses on their harnessor grooming implements.
All of the affected areas should be scrubbed with 0.1 percent BHC once weekly for three weeks.
Hard lumps which develop around the anus and base ofthe tail indicate melanoma.
• Melanoma
Melanoma (skin cancer) is usually found around the anus and (in the female) around the vulva’ lips, under the line of the tail, and on the underside of the tail. Isolated tumors under the skin may occur anywhere on the body. Melanoma is much more frequent in grey horses.
Surgical excision should only be performed where the tumors are isolated, and occur on general body surfaces. When the tumour occurs around the perianal area, surgery is not advisable because of the danger of secondaries and the inaccessibility of the tumor. The tumours are painless unless they grow in wards and create mechanical problems with the rectum. The prognosis long-term is poor.
• Mosquito Bites
Some horses are very sensitive to mosquito bites, which are found all over the body as small swellings with raised hair. As in humans the bites are itchy. Horses should be rugged, put in mosquito-proof stalls or sprayed with insect repellants. The treatment is similar to that for Queenslanditch as described below.
In most cases of Queensland itch the irritation usually begins on the topline of the horse between the mane and the tail.
• Queensland itch
Queensland itch, an allergic dermatitis caused by the horse’s sensitivity to the bites of flies, usually affects the top line of the horse, especially the ears, the mane, the withers and the tail. The most common symptom is excessive itching and rubbing of the withers and tail, which causes loss of hair and self-inflicted sores. The skin becomes thickened and wrinkled. In horses in the southern hemisphere this condition is seen most commonly between December and May. Hair regrowth on damaged areas begins in late winter.
Treatment of Queensland itch is largely symptomatic. There is no cure but time. Preventive measures includetugging the horse between 4 p.m. and 7 a.m. nightly, and keeping the horse in fly-proof stables during the summer period. Local treatment with antihistamine cream is help-ful. Individual horses can also be rubbed or sprayed with insecticidal agents. A good, cheap, but oily treatment is to paint affected areas with used ‘sump oil’ from motor engines. The condition is very hard to control until the flyseason is past.
The face is a common site of infection from rain scald.

Rain Scald (Aphis, Sunburn, Greasy Heel, Swamp Fever)

The usual sites are the loins, saddle, face, muzzle and lower portions of the body. Characteristic signs are the matting together of long hair of the coat. Closer examination show slower layers of the hair firmly matted in plaques with pusat the bottom. These hair clumps can be plucked out, leaving a bleeding surface. The affected area is sore to touch. With greasy heel, horses show acute lameness because of cracking of the skin at the rear of the pastern and fetlockregion. Swelling of the fetlock and lower cannon region is also common.
The condition is the result of infection with a bacterium (Dermatophilus) occurring in prolonged periods of wet and overcast weather conditions. Rapid spread is caused byflies, mosquitoes and birds. It usually only occurs in horsesleft in paddocks without rugs. Harness can be contaminated if used on affected horses.
The most successful treatment is 0.25 per centchloramphenicol in water applied with a brush for two consecutive days. Sometimes antibiotic therapy is necessary.Ordinary washing-up detergents are also effective—but it is essential to remove all plaques so that the detergent canreach the skin. Local areas, such as greasy heel, can betreated with an ointment containing cortisone and anti-biotic.

Ringworm

Ringworm affects mainly the girth area, shoulders andloins. Sometimes generalized infections can be caused by the use of contaminated grooming gear. The symptoms usually commence with raised hair and roughened skin. Examination may irritate the horse. The hairs usually have scab encrusted around the base and may be easily plucked out to leave a grey, moist, glistening area. The lesions lose their hair three to ten days after the infection starts; hair regrowth commences about thirty days after infection. The condition in the early stages should be distinguished from allergies; and in the latter stages from Queensland itch.
All scabs and scales should be removed from the infected sites and burned. As this condition may affect humans,wear plastic gloves when treating the horse. All the soresshould be scrubbed daily with 10 per cent thiabenzole, or 2.5 per cent lime sulphur or 0.5 per cent Ectimar. Where only a small number of sores need to be treated, 10 per centiodine can be used. All contaminated gear should bescrubbed with 0.3 per cent halomid; each horse should have its own grooming gear. Ringworm is a highly infectious fungus. Outbreaks often occur after long periods of damp weather.

Sarcoids (Skin Tumors)

Sarcoids appear on the chest, head, neck and lower limbs and in multiple growths anywhere on the horse’s body.They are skin tumors usually raised above the surface ofthe skin. They appear as nodules in and under the skin and are usually hairless and smooth. They may be pink or pigmented in colour. In advanced cases ulceration occurs.There are two forms of sarcoid, one with a pedicle (stem)and the other flattened against the skin. They are usually resistant to local treatment, but some success may be achieved with 50 per cent podophylline in alcohol applied daily for up to thirty days. Care must be taken to restrict the application to the affected area; the normal skin around the lesion should be protected with soft paraffin. Excellent results are now being achieved with radiation therapy. If left untreated, sarcoids progress in size until they cause physical problems, especially for harness.

Scars

The majority of permanent scars are found on the limbs.The head and chest are often common sites. Scars may be the result of burns or sunburn, of trauma from wire or a foreign body, or of the application of blisters. The original wound has usually healed and is quite satisfactory from ahealth point of view but is cosmetically undesirable. Scar tissue can be surgically removed only if the remaining skin can be closed or skin grafts applied. Otherwise, it is usually preferable to leave it untouched. Lanolin cream keeps theskin soft and prevents cracking. To prevent scar formation on a fresh wound, keep the area moist with zinc or lanolin cream while healing occurs. Where possible, bandage.

Scrub Itch (Tromiaidiosis)

Scrub itch usually occurs on the legs and on the lower abdomen, but can be generalised. It is caused by the micro-scopic red grass mites which gather in clusters on the horsein spring and summer. It is more likely to occur if there are heavily grassed areas nearby. The mouth parts of the mites are buried in the horse’s skin causing severe irritation. The horse bites itself and stamps its feet vigorously. Malathion spray or 1 per cent DDT should be used on stables and bedding to control the mites. Wash or spray the legs witha 5 per cent lime sulphur or Malathion solution.

Sebaceous cysts

These are unsightly but harmless lumps which appear onthe midline of the horse anywhere from -the withers to the tail. They do not irritate the horse, unless under harness, but are unattractive. They vary in size from a few millimeters to several centimeters in diameter. The contents are usually a grey, cheesy material, which is readily expressed when the cyst is squeezed. They are aused by a blockage within an oil gland. The lesions can be surgically excised under local anaesthetic, curetted and sutured.

Souamons Cell Carcinoma (Cancer)

In this condition the third eyelid is most often affected (a condition commonly referred to as ‘cancer eye’). The nose and lips are also common sites, as are the prepuce and penis of the male horse and the vulva of the mare. The lesion is usually a single, discrete, irregular-sized hairless mass protruding above the normal body skin level. It is composed of granulating tissue with ulcerative areas. The best therapy is surgical excision and cobalt radiation treatment. If the lesion is small the outcome is good.

Stable-Fly Bites

Stable-fly bites are raised swellings, 1 centimetre in diameter, with a scab in the centre They are found all over thebody but mainly on the lower body and legs. The bitescause intense itching; the horse will stamp, cow kick (withthe hindlegs), ‘shiver’ and switch the tail violently.
Reduce fly infestation by regularly picking up manurearound the stables and spraying 5 per cent DDT on stablewalls. Use 2 per cent DDT on the horse. The bites causeintense irritation and can be relieved with calamine lotion,or antihistamine/analgesic creams.
Summer sores (Cutaneous habronemiasis, swamp cancer) Summer sores are rapidly granulating masses which bleedvery easily when knocked or brushed. They are commonly found on the legs and lower thorax and abdomen, the eye, the penis (in the male), the vulva (in the female). They are caused by infection of wounds with larval forms ofhabronema (a worm) by infected flies.
On nictitating membranes and the penis it is best to re-move the growths surgically. Growths on the body and legsgenerally respond to treatment with 80 per cent Neguvonfluid as a 50 per cent mixture with DMSO.

Sunburn (Solar Dermatitis)

This usually occurs on white or unpigmented skin areas of the body, particularly along the backline and on the muzzle. It looks like an acute dermatitis. The affected skin becomes swollen, crusty, and sensitive to the touch. Sometimes serum may leak from the area.
Keep the horse out of the sun, preferably in a darkened stable, and treat the affected area with an antibiotic steroid cream. Human ‘block out’ agents can be used, or zinc cream. Preferably keep the horse out of the sun.
Urticaria (Blue-nose, nettle rash, hives, feed allergy) Urticaria usually affects the nose, eyelids, chest, prepuce,vulva, the abdomen and the thoracic wall. Wheals orblotches, appear suddenly on the skin. They are usually not sensitive to touch and disappear rapidly without treatment.
The usual cause is an allergy to insect stings, to spoiled feed, to flowers of spring grasses, or to foreign proteinssuch as are found in injections of serum or vaccine. Thehorse can be treated with intravenous antihistamines. Local areas can be dabbed with ammonia solution to relieve the swelling. Extreme allergic reactions can cause swelling within the windpipe, requiring emergency treatment of antihistamines to prevent asphyxiation.

Viral Papular Dermatitis

This virus causes swellings up to 5 millimetres in diameter which can occur anywhere on the body. (The swellings donot develop into pustules or fluid-filled bubbles.) A scab forms about seven days later and drops off, leaving a bare,hairless area. There is no itchiness. The disease invariably runs for three weeks and treatment is a waste of time.

Warts

Warts are frequently seen in foals and young horses underthe age of three years. They are generally located on thenose, the upper and lower lips and on the side of the face. Severe infections may extend back on to the jowl and upto the eyes. Isolated warts are sometimes found on thelower front legs. Usually they disappear spontaneously after three to six months. A mixture of salicylic acid 25 percent plus podophylline 20 per cent cream, or crude castor oil can be used on large clusters to hasten their disappearance. Warts are caused by a harmless virus.

Sleeping Sickness (Encephalomyelitis)

Sleeping sickness is caused by a virus which attacks the brain. The horse is usually depressed and feverish. It may become very excited, then lapse into a coma, followed by death. It occurs in the Americas. There is no treatment.

Snake Bite

A horse bitten by a venomous snake usually develops serious symptoms, largely because the horse has a relatively thin skin and the snake has good purchasing power, leading to the injection of large quantities of venom. Horses are usually bitten on the nose or the head area, less frequently on the legs or chest.
Nose and head bites are very serious because of the tremendous swelling that rapidly follows a bite. Later a blood-stained, frothy discharge may hang from each nostril. The eyes are swollen shut and the ears are swollen and lying flat. Breathing is difficult. Soon there is extreme depression and helplessness. The mortality rate is about 30 percent, depending on the toxicity of the venom, the size of the snake, and the effectiveness of its bite.
The treatment of snake bite involves antivenin (very expensive) fluid therapy and antibiotic therapy. If the horse is bitten onthe leg a firm bandage can be applied and a polyvalent anti-venin can be used.

Speedy Cut

Speedy cut is a self-inflicted injury to the inner surface of the lower part of the knee joint. It is caused by a blow from the inner point of the shoe on the other front hoof. It can occur when the horse is tired. over-raced, or has an unbalanced action. It can also occur under heavy going with the wrong leg leading. Sometimes a change in gait on broken ground is liable to cause this injury. Faulty conformation may be a permanent cause.
A shoe with longitudinal corks is sometimes used with success. These corks are 7 centimeters long, 3 millimeters wide and 6 millimeters deep and are set inside the nailholes on the branches, beginning at the first nail hole.

Splints

This name is given to the bony enlargements that arise between the large and small bones in the leg below the knee and hock. They form as a result of ossification (cal-cium build-up) in the ligament. This build-up of bone tissue to form the splint can also occur if the splint bone is fractured (for example, when the horse is kicked).
Splints usually develop on the inside of the foreleg andthe outside of the hindleg. They vary in size from that ofa split pea to that of a hen’s egg, and their significance is largely dependent on their position and size, and the age of the animal. Splints most frequently develop in horses under five years of age.
The cause of the splint is often abnormal conformation, where the cannons are offset from the center of the knee,or stress on the good leg from prolonged lameness. This puts more weight on the splint bone, causing movement between the small splint bone and the cannon bone. It is this movement that sets up an inflammation and subsequent calcification. Sometimes splints may be caused bya knock to the leg from the other leg, or more frequently they are the result of too much stress on a young horse’s leg. Usually the horse walks sound but trots lame. Recent cases are painful on pressure.
When searching for a splint, lift the leg and flex the knee,then rub your thumb along the groove between the large and small bones from the knee to the button at the end ofthe small bone. The principle of treatment of splints is to try to get the inflammatory process to settle down and a permanent weld formed between the small and large bones. To this end the horse should be immediately rested and confined. A cold pack should be put on the area to keep the inflammation down. Provided the splint does not involve the knee, or interfere with the free action of the tendons running down the back of the cannon bone, it will not affect the usefulness of the horse. It is frequently regarded as a blemish, however. If the splint is an old one and you wish to remove it for cosmetic purposes, a blister can be applied over the area, but the best results are after the use of radiation therapy. Splints can be removed surgically.

Straining

Straining can indicate constipation.
Strangles is an acute contagious disease of the horse. It appears as a ‘pussy’ nasal discharge, together with enlargement of the regional lymph nodes in the throat area. These may enlarge to the point of rupture. Occasionally the disease may spread via the bloodstream and cause abscess formation in other organs such as the lungs, kidneys, liver and intestines. The horse usually has a fever of 40-41°C increased respiratory rate, depression and loss of appetite.It begins with a mucoid discharge, followed quickly by swelling of the lymph nodes (glands). Once these burst andhave discharged their creamy yellow pus, the horse’s temperature drops to normal.
During an outbreak, sound sanitary measures are im-portant to prevent spread of the disease. Affected animals should be isolated. Take their temperatures twice daily. All animals showing fevers should be isolated. Rest is essential,and affected horses should be protected from cold, draughts and inclement weather. Stables should be cleaned, and the contaminated bedding burned. The organism is a bacteria and is easily destroyed by boiling for ten minutes. Common disinfectants readily destroy the organism.
Horses respond well to antibiotics such as penicillin, streptomycin or tetracyclines. Treatment should be con-tinued until the temperature reaches normal. A vaccine is available to prevent this disease, although its efficiency is in doubt.

Sweeny

This term can apply to any group of wasted muscles. Its popular usage applies to the muscles over the shoulder blade. In most cases the wastage of these muscles is due toa direct blow to the point of the shoulder which damages the nerve supplying the muscles. The wasting of the muscles makes the shoulder joint appear more prominent. Sometimes there is lameness and there may be a bowing of the knee of the limb on the affected side.
There is no known treatment of any value but heat ap-plications may help. Final judgement should be reserved for six months.
This can be due to infestations of pinworms, lice, Queensland itch, mange, or to a dirtyudder or dirty sheath.

Teeth problems

Because the grinding or molar teeth at the back of the horse’s mouth do not exactly oppose, they develop sharp edges which must be filed down. Horses’ teeth should be checked twice yearly and filed (floated) if necessary. Horsesunder six years of age may have caps to be removed from the tips of the teeth.

Tendons, Spralned or Ruptured

Spraining of tendons is a well-known hazard. A sprained tendon may be the result of a slip or mis-step but more commonly it occurs at the end of an exhausting event when the muscles begin to tire. At this time propulsion is main-tained through the check ligaments and tendons rather than through the muscles and tendons. The inelastic tendons are unable to cope with the excessive stretching andmany of the fibres are torn. When the sprain or rupture first begins, the horse should stop work immediately, anti-inflammatory injections should be given, and the local area cold-hosed to reduce the swelling. A poultice should beapplied to the area each day and left on for twenty-fourhours. This procedure should continue for seven days after the swelling and/or heat has left the leg. If the tendon hasbeen badly ruptured the leg should be plaster cast and as lightly raised heel shoe put on the leg. For the valuable animal, surgical correction is also available.
Because of the nature of the healing process, the horse will need six months’ rest. Even after this rest a damaged tendon or ligament is likely to break down again under severe stress.

Tetanus

Most warm-blooded animals are susceptible to tetanus, but the horse is the most sensitive. The cost of vaccination for tetanus is very little, and there is no excuse for not giving the animal protection. All horses should be vaccinated, as the disease is usually fatal. The tetanus germ lives in most organic matter, such as manure and damp conditions around stables.
It enters the horse’s body via a deep penetrating wound.The first signs are a rigidity of the forelegs and a slight tremor or tucking up of the abdominal muscles. The ears are pricked and the third eyelid may begin to protrude. As time progresses, these symptoms become much more dramatic and the horse becomes very sensitive to noise. Treatment of tetanus cases is invariably a failure.
If the horse gets a deep penetrating wound, antitoxin and antitoxoid should be given immediately. Booster shotsof toxoid should be given a month later and then each fiveyears.

Thirst

An abnormal desire for water is seen in fever, sugar diabetes, water diabetes, kidney disease, and diarrhea. Saltyfood and very hot weather can also increase the horse’s thirst. A normal horse may drink up to 45 litres of water a day, a lactating mare much more.

Thrush

Thrush is a disease affecting the cleft of the frog. It is seenin horses stabled in dirty conditions or horses paddocked in unclean, damp conditions. It is generally considered to be an indication of neglect and poor stable management. Bacteria and germs in the cleft of the frog thrive in suchconditions. The sign of thrush is a blackish discharge which gives off a typically offensive smell. The site can become quite raw and painful and the horse may go lame. Superficial thrush can be cleared up by transferring a horseto a dry area. picking its feet out twice a day and cleaning them thoroughly with a brush and water, finally applying a 5 per cent formalin solution. This solution must not get on to the skin. If the frog has been eaten away and the horse is very lame, antibiotic therapy may also be necessary.

Urine Disorders

As with most herbivorous animals, very little goes wrong with the urinary system in the horse. The color of theurine is usually a clear light yellow; it can be very cloudy at times but this is generally of no significance. Urine of port-wine colour may indicate tying-up (azoturia). It may also indicate cystitis (inflammation of the bladder). Incontinence in the horse is usually a sign of aging, and can be treated with hormones. The retention of urine is said to occur with colic and tetanus. This can be relieved with a catheter.
Sometimes a horse may refuse to urinate in strange surroundings—for example, new stables, at a show, on a float trip. Take the horse to a grassed area and let it eat andrelax, or put it in a stable with plenty of straw bedding.`Flooding the box’ is related to water diabetes and may becaused by high grain diets. Horses will usually get over the condition, which causes no harm.

Vaginal Disorders

Abnormal discharges from the vagina include pus, which indicates infection of the bladder or more commonly the uterus (metritis). Any discharge from the vulva of the mareis serious. It is important to get a vet to examine her as soonas possible. The vet will take cultures of the organism to determine which drugs to use. Antibiotics may be given byinjection or in a uterine douche. Mares exhibiting such discharges are invariably infertile, at least until it is cleared. Bloody discharges may indicate a cystitis or more commonly abortion. Pustules affecting the lips of the vagina indicate skin disease such as equine coital exanthema

Vices

Crib-biting, wind-sucking, weaving, pawing, biting, kickingstable walls, wood-chewing, and so on are all vices resulting from boredom. Many horses are locked up in a small stable, hand-fed twice daily, and given nothing else to do all day. They develop vices as a way of passing the time. The trouble is that horses are great mimics and once one starts wood-chewing, for example, a stable full of wood-chewers (`termites’) soon results. Vices such as these are rarely seen in range horses.

Vitamins

Vitamin supplementation for paddocked horses is rarely necessary. Horses in heavy work (racing, polo or endurance riding) may benefit from special equine vitamin preparations, as may young growing stock, but the benefit is doubtful as the horse does produce ample of its own vitamins provided it is given good fresh food. Occasionally,horses in heavy work benefit from vitamin B 12 and vitamin B complex supplements. These should always be given with folic acid. Other vitamin supplements include vitamin E forthe heart and skeletal muscle.

Weaving

This is a vice resulting from boredom. The horse stands atits stable door, head over the door, and rocks from one front foot to the other, wearing itself out and often making holes in the floor.
Ideally the weaver should be put out in a paddock and fed only once a day, thus forcing it to forage for food for most of the day. If this is impossible, a bar or second door should be put on the stable so the horse cannot get its head out through the doorway. I have seen some trainers successfully dangle two bricks in the open space above the door to stop the horse weaving.

Windgall

Windgall (a synovial distension) is fluid distension arounda joint which usually indicates that the joint has been understress. It is commonly found on both the inside and outside of the fetlock joints between the tendons at the back of the leg and the cannon bone. It is simply a protective mechanism for an overworked joint. It is pointless draining the windgall and injecting anti-inflammatory agents as the synovial membrane has been permanently stretched and will just fill up again. Windgalls do no harm to the horse and should be left alone.

Wind-Sucker

A wind-sucker is a horse that can crib in the air without support. As the wind-sucker does not use its teeth for support, the habit does not produce abnormal wear on the teeth and is only detectable when the horse is caught in the act. The head is bent towards the breast, thelips move in a peculiar manner, the head and neck are jerked upwards and air is swallowed, the act being accompanied by a grunt similar to that heard in crib-biting. Like crib-biting, wind-sucking is a definite unsoundness ina horse and can predispose to other problems—particularly colic. There is no permanent cure for such a horse, although good results can be obtained with neck straps.
The term ‘wind-sucking’ also refers to movement of air into a mare’s vagina (carrying with it fecal debris and consequent infection) as a result of poor conformation of the mare’s anus/vulva region.

Wobbler

This is a condition characteristically seen in well-developed male horses with long crested necks at yearling to two year old. It presents as a weakness in the hindlegs (a slight paralysis). Riders will complain that they feel unsafe. This condition is associated with a lesion in the neck of the horse which interferes with the nervous control of the back legs.
There are several degrees of the syndrome. In the milder form the horse should not be ridden but may lead a per-fectly normal life in the paddock. In severe forms the horse may gradually deteriorate to the point where it loses the use of its back legs and must be destroyed. There is no cure for this condition.

Wolf Teeth

The wolf teeth are four redundant (vestigial) teeth which are frequently present in the horse, one in front of each of the first molar teeth in the upper and lower jaw. The two in the lower jaw rarely erupt. A wolf tooth varies in shape—usually it is tubular, but occasionally one is seen with a crown that resembles in shape a small molar. Usually the wolf teeth erupt during the first six months and may be shed about the same time as the milk teeth behind them. They may remain indefinitely. Some people claim that they interfere with the bit in the mouth and consequently horse dentists tend to remove them.

Wounds

The chief danger for all wounds, apart from the mechanical damage, is the risk of infection and further damage—especially to joint capsules, sensitive portions of the foot. tendons, blood vessels and nerves. Lack of drainage may encourage the spread of infection. Healing of the superficial part of the wound and trapping infection under-neath, may lead to abscess formation. Undetected foreign bodies such as pieces of wood or wire may be left in a wound and cause sinus tracks. Such wounds will not heal until the foreign body is removed. Conditions interfering with the healing of wounds include:
Interference with circulation in the vicinity of the wound.This can be caused by swelling, improper bandaging, laceration and cutting of blood vessels, prolonged infection and granulation tissue.
Invasive infection drainage should always be established when infection is present. Failure to use sterile techniqueswhen dressing the wounds may be the cause of infection.
Devitalised tissue, or any other dying tissues, particularly those that have been pulled away from their circulation, should be removed. A triangular skin flap with the apex of the flappointed upwards or towards the incoming blood supply will usually lose the apical portion of the triangle as a result of loss of blood supply.
Inadequate drainage or collection of blood and discharges in the wound. Inadequate drainage interferes with circulation, and forms an ideal medium for growth ofbacteria.
Retained foreign bodies Any foreign body left in the wound will interfere with healing and cause a sinus track.
Continuous irritation of the wound This is usually dueto lack of restaint, allowing a horse to abuse the woundarea. Neck cradles and Elizabethan collars are often helpful in preventing further irritation.
An Elizabethan collar made from wooden sticks to prevent the horse from biting at wounds or bandages.
Wound medications are often more detrimental than helpful in the healing of a wound. Irritant antiseptics and drugs should be avoided inall cases. Drugs such as copper sulphate and antimony trichloride are very irritant to new cell growth. Although these products will destroy superficial granulation tissue,they will also destroy immature, young, growing skin cells. Any granulation tissue (proud flesh) present should be surgically removed by scalpel or cautery and the wound kept under a pressure bandage with a corticosteroid and antibiotic ointment until it is healed. Powdered blue-stone (copper sulphate) in vaseline, pasted on, will reduce granulation tissue over 24 hours.
Filling in a leg three days after wire cuts. Any further swelling would require antibiotic treatment.
Dirty bandages should be changed frequently to avoid irritation. Wet bandages containing wound discharges will delay healing. In most cases a bandage should not be allowed to stay in place for longer than three days. Contamination should always be avoided when applying a dressing.
Poor nutrition will delay healing of a Pressure bandages replaced daily will help prevent proudflesh developing on wounds of the limbs. wound. Infestation with parasites, bad teeth, and inad-equate feeding may contribute to delays in wound healing.
Treatment of lacerated and incised wounds Mistreatment of wounds will result in granulation (proudflesh), scarring, blemishing and sometimes unsoundness.
Tetanus vaccination is inexpensive and painless. Unprotected, a horse may get tetanus, a most excruciating and fatal disease.
Horses — First Aid Expanded
Wounds below the carpus (knee) and the tarsus (hock) are especially sensitive and will develop proud flesh unless careful treatment is given to prevent these complications.Tetanus anti-toxin should always be administered if the horse is not on a tetanus program.

All wounds should be cleaned carefully and tissues that have obviously lost their blood supply should be removed.Horse tissue tends to waterlog when cleansed with ordinary water, so normal saline solution should be used—that is, 1 teaspoonful of salt to 600 milliliters of water. Clean thewound using sterile gauzes or sponges.

Wounds below the knee and the hock joint that are so small that bandaging is not required should be treated daily with agents which tend to retard proud flesh devel-opment, such as 2 per cent picric acid, 2 per cent tannicacid, triple dye preparations or Socatyl paste.

Larger wounds on the limbs should be cleansed as described above and covered with Socatyl or with anantibiotic/cortisone combination cream and then ban-daged firmly. The bandage should be changed daily until the seepage and discharge is minimal. Then decrease the frequency of bandage changing. Keep the wound bandaged until skin has covered the area. Keep the horse inactive until the wound has healed.

Wounds on the upper limbs and body, if not stitched, should be irrigated twice daily until pink granulation tissue has filled the hole. Then apply triple dye or commercial topical sprays.

Yellow Eggs

In autumn the bot-fly lays its yellow eggs, frequently on the horse’s legs. If not removed, by shaving the hair or by wiping the area with kerosene, the eggs hatch, and the larval stages (bots) eventually find their way to the horse’s stomach.

Popular homestead birds, gums provide eggs as well as a delicious, gamey meat. They are excellent  if allowed to run wild, and don’t scratch for feed, so they are less destructive in the gardens than chickens. They can also be raised in hen house.

Guinea Fowl Breeds and Varieties

There are three varieties of guinea fowl available – Pearl, Lavender and White. There is little difference among them except in color. The Pearl variety has purple gray plumage dotted with white. Lavender guineas are similar but their plumage is light grey or lavender dotted with white. Whites have pure white plumage and a lighter skin.

Guinea Chicks (Keets)

Guinea chicks, called keets, can be mail-ordered. Brooding procedures are the same as with chickens.

If you wish to raise keets from your own guineas, it is best to incubate the eggs yourself or give them to a domestic chicken hen to raise since guinea hens are poor. Hens usually lay one egg a day, and will lay 30 before becoming broody. Often several hens will lay in the same nest.

To keep the hen laying throughout the season, remove eggs from the nest but leave half-a-dozen marked eggs to encourage laying.

If you are incubating the eggs, treat them like chicken eggs. If one of your hens is on guinea eggs, keep her lice-free and change the nesting material regularly. The incubation period for guinea eggs is 28 days. Keep the eggs lightly water to aid the keets in breaking their shells.

Guinea Fowl Housing

Few guineas can be kept on farm with hens, or allowed to go wild, but still do very well if left by themselves or can be fed twice a day to encourage them to come home to roost.

If you want to raise more than a few, provide them with a coop. Guineas will require a run, the larger the better, with six-foot-high walls of poultry fencing tight covering of the same material. Facilities should also be provided in Guineas raised on range should be provided with shelters like chickens on range. Stand warned, however, that unless the birds are pinioned or the six primaries of one wing removed, guineas will quickly fly out of their range enclosure and live in the wild.

Guinea Fowl Feeding

Guineas will feed themselves if allowed to run wild, eating grubs and insects. If kept inside, the birds are fed the same as turkeys. On range the birds can also be fed similarly to turkeys, but should be fed twice a day. Feed in the late afternoon if you want them to return to their shelters for the night.

The first feed for keets may be turkey starting mash. When you are going to put the keets in your brooder, dip their beaks in turkey starting mash and then in water. Starter mash should contain 25 percent protein, and may include oatmeal or finely chopped green feed.

Growing mash and grain should be fed to the keets after they are about six weeks old. After the first ten days, keep mash constantly in front of the keets or feed four or five times daily.

Guineas in captivity need a constant source of fresh water. For keets, put pebbles in the trough so the keets will not drown themselves in their drinking water.

Guinea Fowl Sexing

Guinea hens and cocks resemble each other, and sexing is often difficult. General advice for sexing is that the female guinea emits a cry that sounds like “buckwheat, buckwheat,” while the cry of the male is mono-syllabic. Males have higher and darker combs, longer wattles, and the white, skin like covering of the head extends farther down the neck than on the female. If a pair is disturbed during laying season, the male will utter a shrill cry and fly away while the female remains on the nest.

Guinea Fowl Slaughtering and Using

Young birds are usually marketed when they reach 1.5 to two pounds live weight. At this stage the meat is tender and resembles the flesh of quail or partridge. At six to ten months the flesh closely resembles that of pheasant and is slightly gamey. Guineas may be prepared for the table as are other poultry of a corresponding size or age, and may also be prepared as game birds. Indeed, in England and Europe guinea fowl are often hunted as game birds.

The easiest way to slaughter domestic guineas is to take a sharp knife, sever the artery in the roof of the mouth, and pierce the brain by pushing the knife into the skull cavity. Birds should be hung upside down to drain. Piercing the brain this way aids in loosening the feathers, and guineas then can be dry-plucked. Never scald the birds. After they have been plucked, chill them quickly.

Guinea eggs are smaller than chicken eggs, and can be fried, scrambled or hard-boiled. The whites are lighter when whipped than the whites of hens’ eggs and are therefore good for cake baking. Sixteen whites from guinea eggs equal 11 whites from chicken eggs. Be sure the birds do not see you gathering the eggs, or they are likely to move their nests.

Abscesses

An abscess is a localized collection of pus and may occur in any part of the body as a result of infection by a pus-producing organism. It usually results from a penetrating wound such as those caused by the teeth of another dog or by a foreign body such as a stick, thorn or grass seed.
Characteristic symptoms are pain, heat and swelling of the infected area. The dog may have a high temperature. The abscess should be brought to a head by using h. fomentations or poultices. This is done by bathing the area using a rag soaked in warm water to which has been added a tablespoon of epsom salts per liter. When the abscess is ripe the centre feels soft; it will often burst of its own accord. Lancing may be necessary to evacuate the contents however. The condition is usually painful. Once the contents have been evacuated, the opening should be enlarged so that the abscess doesn’t heal over too quickly, and it should be irrigated with a 50 per cent peroxide and water solution three times daily for three days. After three days irrigate with clean water from a hose. If at any stage the edges cannot be separated easily it may be necessary to reopen the site. The abscess must heal from the inside outwards. If the skin closes too quickly, pockets of infection may remain and the abscess grow to a head again. Where the abscess is small and only one is present, antibiotic treatment is often not necessary; but where a number of abscesses occur, veterinary advice and treatment is essential.

Abdominal Pain (Colic)

Usually the dog is reluctant to walk, and when it does it has a tucked-up appearance with an arched back. If the pain is very severe the dog may adopt a praying attitude—that is. with the chest on the ground and the hindquarters raised.
The animal usually objects to the abdomen being touched. The causes of abdominal pain are many, and because treatment is dependent on the cause, it is important that a correct diagnosis is made. Always consult a vet. In some cases the dog’s condition may be very serious, and its life may be in peril—for example, from torsion (twisting) of the stomach or a twisted bowel. In these cases, the animal usually exhibits excruciating pain, and rolls and may vomit constantly.

Abortion

Abortion or miscarriage does not often occur in the bitch. Its causes are gross fatigue, injury or infection. Sometimes it can be caused by hormonal dysfunction. Rare chronic infections cause repeated abortions. and it is inadvisable to continue breeding from the bitch—a hysterectomy may be recommended.

Abrasions

Abrasions are sore areas of skin resulting from injury to the surface layers. Usually this kind of injury does not penetrate the skin. (If an injury does penetrate the skin layers and reveal the flesh, it should be sutured by a vet.) Ordinary abrasions can be treated at home. Remove the surface debris and any discharge by washing the wound gently with water from a garden hose.
If the dog will allow it, clean the wound with cotton-wool dipped in warm water, and disinfect with 50 per cent peroxide and water. Once the wound is clean, apply an astringent agent such as gentian violet, mercurochrome or triple dye twice daily. If necessary, cut the surrounding hair away so that medications can be applied for 1 centimeter beyond the edge of the wound.
Alternatively, antibiotic powders may be applied to the surface. Abrasions recover better if left open to the air, so don’t try to bandage them. Don’t worry if the dog licks the wound.

Allergic Reactions

Allergic reactions can be divided into two categories: anaphylactic shock, and urticaria.
Anaphylactic shock is an immediate hypersensitive reaction, in which death may rapidly occur following respiratory and circulatory collapse. The condition usually develops from human interference, although it may also result from a bee or wasp sting. The condition is often attributed to the effect of histamines on the body. Signs are restlessness, diarrhea, vomiting, collapse, sometimes convulsions, followed by a period of calm, then death. The agents that may cause anaphylactic shock include penicillin and other antibiotics, vaccines (though rarely), tranquilizers, vitamins and sometimes certain foods.
Treatment involves the intravenous administration of an antihistamine. so the dog should be taken to a vet immediately. On the way, ensure its air passages are clear by extending the dog’s neck, putting a peg on its tongue and pulling the tongue forward. Bee or wasp stings rarely cause death. Urticaria is characterized by a swelling of the soft tissues of the head and body. It nearly always affects the eyes. mouth and ears. A discharge may develop from the eyes. and the animal frequently rubs its mouth and eyes with its paws or on the ground. The animal takes on a very old appearance. This type of allergic reaction may develop within fifteen to twenty minutes after contact with the causative agent. It very rarely causes serious damage to the animal and is usually the result of food allergies, ingestion of spoiled protein material, insect bites or contact with certain chemicals. Insect bites are probably the most common cause.
Any skin allergy may, however, become an emergency situation because of self-mutilation from excessive itching and scratching. In such a case the dog requires antihistamine injections from the vet. If possible, find out what food, place or substance seems to induce the attack.

All-meat syndrome (Nutritional Secondary Hyperparathyroidism. N.S.H.)

This is still an important problem, although it is becoming less common as meat prices rise and more dog owners switch to commercial foods which are properly balanced in calcium and phosphorus. It is more frequently seen in puppies of the larger breeds. N.S.H. is caused by feeding a mainly meat diet with incorrect calcium supplementation. Meat not only contains very little calcium (approximately 10 milligrams per 100 grams) but has a marked imbalance of calcium and phosphorus. In meat the ratio of calcium to phosphorus is 1:20 —in a normal diet it should be approximately 1:1.
The abnormal diet leads to altered levels of calcium and phosphorus in the blood, which stimulate the parathyroid gland. The hormone released leads to correction of the blood levels, by resorbing calcium from the bones. Fractures may develop. These appear more frequently in the hind-limbs, and pelvic fractures are commonly seen. They often result in narrowing of the pelvis, problems with constipation and an extra problem in whelping. Sometimes the vertebral column may show deformities resulting in pressure on the spinal cord, giving rise to neurological disturbances. Treatment is to correct the diet by using a calcium supplement. Half a teaspoon of calcium carbonate should be given with each 100 grams of meat fed. Other calcium supplements can be given but the quantities need to be increased to provide a balance.
Calciostelein injections are an unsatisfactory and inadequate method of treatment. N.S.H. can be prevented by feeding young puppies one of the complete, prepared foods that make supplementation unnecessary. The following conditions occur as a result of overfeeding together with inherited components

Anaemia

Anaemia is a condition in which the blood’s ability to carry oxygen is reduced. It can be caused by blood loss from a hemorrhage or by blood-sucking parasite, for example, hookworms in young puppies. A reduction in the number of blood cells able to carry oxygen is also caused by disease, parasites or nutritional deficiencies.
Anaemia due to blood loss is normally quickly corrected by the body as long as the hemorrhage is controlled. The addition of iron and vitamin B to the diet will assist this process. Where anaemia is due to infection, the condition must be corrected and treated before the anaemia can be rectified, but again, supplements of vitamin B and iron assist recovery. Parasitic conditions should be treated with worming preparations and the resultant anaemia corrected by supplementation.
Nutritional deficiencies resulting in anaemia are usually related to lack of iron, cobalt or vitamin B12. Raw liver or liver extracts are very good for correcting anaemic situations. The diet should be well-balanced, nourishing and contain red meat.

Anal Adenoma

This is a small tumor that appears at the anus in both male dogs and bitches. It is a condition of old age, usually brought to the owner’s attention by the dog constantly licking the anal area. Treatment is either surgical to remove the tumor, or cryosurgical, to freeze it out. Alternatively, hormone therapy will reduce the growth.

Anal Glands, Infected

On either side of the dog’s anus are glands called anal glands, which secrete a foul-smelling lubricating fluid intended to be emptied into the anus each time the dog passes a motion. In many dogs the anal glands have outlived their usefulness, as modern feeding patterns result in motions too soft to require the special fluid. Unfortunately, changing the diet to help the glands may make the dog constipated. The result is that the glands fill and become impacted. The impaction can become infected, forming an abscess which can recur constantly. The first sign of trouble comes with the dog dragging its hindquarters over the grass or the carpet (`scooting’).
In other cases, the dog may be lying quietly when it suddenly squeals and rushes forward. Sometimes the dog may lick the anal area. suddenly looking at the tail base and putting the tail between its legs as though stung. In a simple case of impaction. all that is required is to squeeze the glands by pressing them upwards and forwards, to evacuate the contents. In some dogs the glands may require attention every three or four weeks. If the condition persists and causes the dog continual trouble, the glands can be removed surgically.
If an abscess forms in a gland. the dog shows signs of acute pain, especially when attempting to pass a motion. It may squeal or bite when its tail or hindquarters are handled. If the tail is elevated, a large, painful-looking swelling can be seen on one side of the anus. Sometimes the dog’s temperature is elevated to about 40°C. In these cases the inflammation is so painful that any attempt to empty the glands by pressing them will be unsuccessful. The abscess will either have to be treated by antibiotics for a few days or lanced surgically. This is a job for the vet.

Anal Irritation

Treatment depends on the case, which may be worms, enlarged prostate glands, anal gland conditions, anal fissure, chronic diarrhea or even a foreign body, usually a bone lodged in the rectum

Anal Occlusion

Occlusion of the anus is a condition usually seen in longhaired breeds. The anal opening is completely blocked by a mass of dried feces attached to the hairs around the anus.
The dog suffers great discomfort and the smell is unmistakable. The best method of removal is to use curved. blunt-ended scissors to cut off the hair at skin level. Care must be taken not to cut the skin. Sometimes soaking the mass in warm water before attempting its removal makes it easier for the dog.

Anal Prolapse

anus is seen mostly in young puppies. being, persistent diarrhea which in turn is often caused by heavy roundworm infestation. Sometimes it may be caused by constipation or overfeeding.
One sign of a prolapsed anus is a finger-like projection of mucous membrane from the anus. The pup is usually in considerable distress and licks the protrusion incessantly. Treatment of this condition. by replacing the prolapse and suturing it into position. is best left to the vet.

Anti-Coagulants

Anti-coagulants, such as warfarin, are commonly used in modern rodenticides (rat poisons). Symptoms of poisoning include anaemia from blood loss, persistent nose bleeding, bloody urine, labored breathing, bloody diarrhea and increased redness of the skin and the conjunctiva (eye membranes).
It is unusual for a dog to suffer any problem from eating one poisoned rat—usually the dog must eat several poisoned rats over a number of days before an anticoagulant will have any detrimental effect on the dog. It is advisable to have the dog checked by a vet.

Appetite, Decreased

Decreased dog’s appetite appears to have decreased, it is important to distinguish between an actual loss of appetite and the inability to eat. The latter may be because of some painful condition in the mouth or throat, for example, bad teeth. inflammation of the gums, ulceration of the mouth, a bone caught between the teeth, a cracked tooth or inflamed and sore lips. Old age, injury and ill health often produce a decreased appetite. In old age, a lack of appetite is often because of some other underlying problem and if allowed to continue it will frequently result in a loss of weight and condition. Toy breeds invariably eat very little. Sometimes the dog has been fed a selective diet from weaning and will not touch anything else placed before it. In addition, urban dogs are usually overfed and under-exercised, so it is quite feasible for them to go a day or two without eating anything. Ill health. particularly where fever is involved, invariably produces a decreased appetite. This is very common in disease situations such as Septicemia, Toxemia, and Shock.
Appetite, Depraved
With a depraved appetite the dog may eat stones, coal, manure or dirt. Possible causes include teething, worms, indigestion and deficiencies in salt, minerals or vitamins.
Sometimes it can be because of actual hunger. Puppies exhibit this symptom more than adult dogs, and frequently they have a history of an all-meat diet. When this symptom occurs. treat the animal for worms and ensure that its diet contains a balanced vitamin and mineral supplement, particularly calcium. It is common and normal for dogs to eat grass. which is said to provide a fresh source of vitamins.
Other authorities claim that grass-eating induces vomiting to rid the stomach of old, stale food. Dogs frequently bury food and then eat it when it is rotten. The eating of ‘aged’ meat is quite normal for the dog—though it sometimes cases vomiting —so don’t be alarmed.

Appetite, Increased

Increased appetite has three forms:
(a) A normal situation where the increase is because of lactation, cold, increased work. food of poor biological value, or growth. The animal maintains its condition and weight.
(b) Increased appetite coupled with loss of weight—as in pancreatic disease, sugar diabetes or internal parasites.
(c) Increased appetite coupled with weight gain—this can be caused by hormonal imbalance. tumors or overindulgent owners who expect the dog to eat three meals a day just because they do.

Arthritis

Arthritis is an inflammatory condition of a joint or a disease involving a joint. It may be caused by the effects of injury, infection or malfunction of the joint. It can be classified as acute or chronic.
The joint is usually swollen and painful and the dog avoids using it. There are many different types of arthritis, the most common in the dog being hip dysplasia—an inflammatory condition of the hip joints. Relief from arthritis is best achieved by rest and warmth. Pain-relieving drugs and anti-inflammatory agents are often used.
If infection exists, antibiotic treatment is necessary. Temporary relief can be given by administering a quarter of a 300-milligram tablet of soluble aspirin every four hours. In many cases the arthritic condition is exacerbated by obesity, and dieting may help.

Avascular Necrosis of the Hip

Avascular necrosis of the hip is well recognized in breeds such as Yorkshire, Highland, Cairn and Jack Russell Terriers, Miniature Poodles, Chihuahuas and Shih Tzu.
It causes hind-limb lameness in dogs four to nine months, on one or both sides. Pain is localized in the hip joint; associated muscle deterioration is well recognized. Surgical treatment appears to provide a more rapid return to normal than conservative treatment.

Babesiosis

Babesiosis is a disease caused by a blood parasite from the bite of an infected tick. It is widespread in all parts of the world.
The dog usually suffers from a high temperature, depression, rapid breathing, loss of appetite, weakness and staggering. Anaemia develops and jaundice may be present.
A blood sample is needed to confirm the diagnosis. Veterinary advice is essential.

Backache

The dog with a backache is unwilling to move or to turn round, climb stairs or jump in and out of cars. The condition usually occurs in long-backed dogs such as Corgis and Dachshunds. The dog may cry out in pain without being touched. Sometimes the dog will remain on the ground. unwilling to get up; when it does, it moves stiffly.
The causes may be actual physical injury, a disc protrusion, infection or, in some cases, abdominal pain. Various tests, including X-rays, are needed to pin-point the condition.
Where hack conditions are suspected, particularly in long-backed dogs, it is advisable to keep the dog on a flat surface for at least three weeks, otherwise the condition may progress to paralysis of the back legs.

Balance

Loss of balance is caused by conditions affecting the central nervous system, such as distemper, encephalitis, meningitis, space-occupying lesions (such as tumors), tick bite or snake bite. It can also be caused by middle ear infections. This is a problem for the vet

Balanitis

Balanitis is an inflammatory condition of the foreskin (the prepuce). It is a normal condition in most dogs, is commonly seen as a pus-filled discharge from the eye of the penis, and is very difficult to clear up. The prepucial cavity (the fleshy housing of the penis) is warm and moist, an ideal environment for bacteria. Sexual frustration is a contributing factor; the dog continually licks himself as a form of masturbation, so reinfecting the area.
Treatment can be instituted by syringing out the cavity and squirting an antibiotic cream into it two or three times a day for a five-day period. However, once medication ceases, reinfection is likely. As balanitis causes the dog so little trouble, it is regarded as an almost-normal condition and should only lead to a visit to the vet if the discharge becomes bloody, signifying an injury or inflammation of the sexual glands.

Behavioral problems

Many of the behavioral abnormalities exhibited by dogs are the result of neuroses induced by urban dwelling. The most serious problem facing the urban dog is severe territorial restriction—particularly upsetting to the larger breeds. Almost invariably it is the large male dog who becomes involved in wandering, biting, fighting other dogs, chasing cars, barking excessively and destroying furniture.
It is rare to see female dogs or dogs of small breeds wandering far from their homes, as their territorial requirements are more easily satisfied.
Overcrowding in urban areas results in dogfights over territory, particularly between males. Exercise your dog daily.
If your male dog is still a nuisance, castration is recommended. Hormone therapy using progesterone has recently proven successful in correcting abnormal behavioral traits

Dermatitis of the Scrotum

Dermatitis of the scrotum is particularly common in Old English Sheepdogs and Chows and is extremely irritating. Treatment is by astringent agents such as mercurochrome, triple dye or any other antibacterial dermatological agent. Apply to the scrotal surface three times daily for about five days. Try to stop the dog licking the area by using an Elizabethan collar. In cases that continually recur or don’t clear up, castration is the only solution.

Bleeding from the Mouth

Bleeding in the mouth is usually due to cuts or other physical injuries. Usually the dog has pierced one of the major veins under the tongue with a bone or a piece of wood. Other causes of bleeding from the mouth include inflamed gums

Bleeding from the Rectum

Rectal bleeding is usually the result of an inflammatory condition in the intestines caused by either bacteria or parasites. Bleeding of this nature is very serious and the dog should be taken to a veterinary surgeon urgently.
If bleeding is due to a cut or ulcerated tongue, or a cut on the inside of the cheek. Take the dog to the vet.

Bleeding from the Surface of the Body

Surface bleeding can in many cases be stopped by bandaging a pad of cotton-wool into position over the area. Pressure bandaging is the most important thing to do to reduce hemorrhage. Where bleeding is heavy, it can be controlled by applying direct pressure over the injured vessel or to the spot where the blood is escaping.
This can be done with the fingers or by applying a tourniquet. Where sizable vessels, particularly arteries, are spurting blood, a tourniquet is essential. This should be slackened for a few seconds every three or four minutes.
A tourniquet can he left in place for up to three-quarters of an hour without consequent problems. If the dog has lost a lot of blood it should be taken to a veterinary surgeon for treatment to overcome shock and loss of blood, and to restore normal blood pressure

Bleeding Internally

Internal loss of blood usually follows a car accident or other injury. It can be detected by signs of bodily weakness, pallor of the mucous membranes (the eye membranes and mouth appear pale), a weak pulse and coldness of the extremities (the limbs and ears). Place the dog in a head-down position at an angle of about 30 degrees. Keep it warm and take it to a vet as soon as possible

Bleeding Nose

Nose bleeds may result from injury, violent sneezing, a growth, ulcers or parasites in the nasal cavities.
Ice placed over the nose will often help reduce bleeding.
Ensure that any bleeding does not interrupt the dog’s respiration and ascertain the cause of bleeding, taking the dog to the vet if necessary. Reduce excitement and exercise for a day or two after the bleeding stops

Bleeding Tail

Injuries to the tip of the tail often cause bleeding that is difficult to control because the dog wags its tail and knocks it on various objects. Pressure bandaging with an adhesive tape is advised or cautery of the blood vessel.

Blood in Urine

Bleeding can originate from the urinary system—that is, from the kidney or the bladder—or from the reproductive system. If the bleeding is not the normal discharge that occurs when a bitch is in season, take the dog to the vet.

Bone Problems of Growing Dogs

The following conditions affect dogs during their growing period, most frequently the larger breeds. Before discussing the various problems it is necessary to understand the basic anatomy of the growing bone as it will be frequently referred to.
Limb bones basically grow from their ends at special sites known as growth plates. Most bones have growth plates at either end. though some have them at only one end. Although one might expect the bones to grow equally from both ends, this is not necessarily so.
The difference between the growth of the two ends is of little significance except in the forelimbs where the radius and ulna must grow as a pair for the forelimbs to remain straight. Many of the deformities of the forelimbs of larger breeds are due to a disproportionate growth of the radius and ulna.

Car Sickness

The car-sick dog will first salivate profusely and then vomit if it has food in its stomach. For most dogs the problem can be overcome by taking them on short trips on an empty stomach to accustom them to car travel. Put the dog on the floor of the car rather than on the seat where it can see.
Medication for car sickness includes tranquilization and specific anti-sickness tablets available from your vet.

Coat Conditions

A glossy coat indicates a healthy dog. Poor coat condition—dry and dull—can indicate illness or dietary deficiency. Diet supplementation with butter or margarine at the rate of a tablespoon per day, or the addition of a vitamin or fatty acid supplement, will often bring out the gloss in the coat.

Colic

Colic simply means pain in the abdomen and can have numerous causes, such as indigestion, flatulence, constipation, a swallowed foreign body causing pain, gastric torsion, twisting of the bowel, distention of the stomach, enteritis (inflammation of the bowel wall), kidney disease, hepatitis, and so on. If the cause is not obvious, consult your vet.

Coma

Coma is a complete loss of consciousness often accompanied by heavy breathing and dilated pupils. Coma may be caused by injuries to the head, a stroke, heart attack, circulatory failure, poisoning, drug intoxication, kidney or liver disease, diabetes, lack of calcium in the blood, septicemia, shock or epilepsy. It may sometimes be caused by very low or very high temperatures, brain hemorrhage, abscesses, bruising or tumors.
In many illnesses it is also the last stage before death. Ensure that the dog is lying comfortably without restriction to the throat, chest or abdomen. Extend the head, pull the tongue out as far as possible and ensure a good supply of fresh air. Keep the animal still and warm, using blankets and hot-water bottles. Turn the dog over every three to four hours to aid circulation. Provide subdued light and quiet surroundings to reduce disturbance. Veterinary assistance is essential.

Constipation

The dog has difficulty passing the hard droppings and may eventually get to the point where it strains without passing a stool. Sometimes the abdomen may appear swollen. The causes:
Nervous system Dogs with a history of slipped discs, paralysis of the back legs or weakness in the back legs are prone to constipation.
Mechanical obstruction The obstruction can be caused by enlargement of the prostate gland in male dogs, diverticulitis in the bowel walls, a fractured pelvis healing to high bone content in the diet. When bones make up more than 10 per cent of the diet they can cause constipation. Painful anal area This can be due to cuts, matted long hair, infected anal glands or other conditions of the anal sphincter.
If the dog to be treated has been on a home diet, first try a canned food, which will sometimes loosen the dog’s motions. The next step is to give the dog paraffin oil orally at the rate of 5-15 milliliters twice daily, depending on the weight of the dog and the subsequent consistency of the droppings.
Fecal softener medications or warm soapy enemas may be helpful. Prevention is best instituted by correcting the diet. Increase the vegetable fiber content of the diet. Add liver and decrease the bones. Dogs which continue to strain need veterinary attention.

Cough

A cough is an important indication of disease. Excessive coughing is physically exhausting and harmful. Coughs can be caused by:
• Infectious agents—such as bacteria or viruses which cause tonsillitis or laryngitis. The most common virus is `kennel cough’ which is a contagious disease usually contracted when a dog has been kept in close proximity to other dogs. Symptoms are a dry, loud, harsh cough, with the dog sometimes bringing up phlegm. The dog may be depressed and slightly off its food. The condition can last for five to seven days, during which period the dog will produce an immunity to the virus. Although ‘kennel cough’ in itself is rarely serious, the dog should be put on a course of antibiotics to stop any secondary infection producing pneumonia. For home treatment, a child’s cough medicine given as for a child is often helpful. A mixture of equal parts of raw egg white, honey and water can be given every half hour at the rate of 5-15 milliliters (1-3 teaspoons). Affected dogs should be protected from cold and damp and not be over-exercised.
• Parasites—such as roundworms or hookworms. which may cause bronchitis and pneumonia in young puppies.
• Chemical irritants—such as smoke, spray, gases and fine dust.
• Obstructions—such as tight collars, tumors. and congestion from chronic heart failure (which is particularly common in Poodles), from tonsillitis and from pharyngitis. In these cases coughing occurs whenever the dog becomes excited or takes exercise.
• Heart worm—causes coughing from a mechanical blockage of the heart.

Debarking

Debarking is an operation in which the vocal cords are cut to reduce the amount of noise produced by the dog. The operation is illegal in many countries, including Australia and the United Kingdom.

Dehydration

In dehydration the body tissues contain insufficient fluid to carry out their normal function. It can be caused by fever, high environmental temperatures, chronic vomiting, increased urinary output because of disease, diarrhea or decreased drinking in severe illnesses.
In smaller animals. The symptoms are tachycardia, dry mucous membranes, a dry harsh coat, slow return of the skin when it is lifted. and glazed eyes. Treatment is to correct the underlying cause of the condition and institute quid therapy with electrolytes. Prolonged dehydration is dangerous. Always take the dog to the vet to determine the cause.

Depression

Depression usually happened because of the underlying infectious process or disease. Check for obvious symptom and the dog should be handled by a veterinary surgeon.

Diabetes Mellitus

Sugar diabetes occurs more commonly in obese bitches and also in certain breeds of dogs, particularly Dachshunds and Poodles. A diabetic animal is constantly hungry and despite an increased food intake loses weight. The other common manifestation of sugar diabetes is excessive thirst.
Left untreated, the continued rapid breakdown of the animal’s fat reserves results in the accumulation of toxic products in the blood, and the animal becomes depressed, loses its appetite and vomits frequently. Because it is still losing vast amounts of water in the urine, it rapidly becomes dehydrated. This combination is fatal unless treated promptly by insulin injection. The animal’s daily food and exercise routine must be adjusted so that the maximum insulin effect coincides with the periods of high glucose concentration. The type of food should be kept constant.
If a regular amount is given at a regular time, the control of this illness is more easily achieved. Carbohydrates should be kept to a minimum, and vitamin C should be supplied in large quantities. The insulin must be continued daily for the rest of the dog’s life. Diabetes may cause cataracts.

Diarrhea

Diarrhea has many causes including bacterial and viral infections, worms, gut tumors, hepatitis, distemper, leptospirosis, poisoning, coccidiosis, overeating, food allergies, bad foods, sudden dietary changes, abnormal pancreatic secretions, chronic liver disease and nervousness.
Diarrhea may take several forms: it may be acute or chronic; it may affect the dog generally by causing a raised temperature and depression, or the dog may be healthy in every other respect. Acute diarrhea is seen as a watery, sometimes bloody stool in a previously healthy animal. If this is accompanied by elevated temperature, depression and failure to eat, the gastrointestinal tract is inflamed and bleeding. The dog should be taken to a vet immediately.
Even in mild cases of diarrhea where the dog is clinically normal, it is wise not to let the condition proceed for more than twenty-four hours without seeking veterinary advice.
Apparently normal diets can cause diarrhea; the constituents of milk may be at fault, or canned foods, too much vegetable matter, liver or oils. Diarrhea in young pups can be caused by cow’s milk. Replace the milk with water for three or four days and give the animal Kaomagma at the rate of 1 milliliter for every kilogram body-weight (to a maximum of 10 milliliters) every six hours.
After a few days reintroduce cows milk to the pup’s diet but dilute it with water, 50 per cent milk : 50 per cent water, for three to four weeks. Gradually increase the concentration of the milk each three weeks by 10 per cent.
Alternatively, enquire from your pharmacist about a human baby milk product that is lactose free. Worms, particularly roundworms, may cause diarrhea in young pups.
Changes of diet should always be introduced slowly—sudden switches of food, particularly if they require minimal digestion, encourage diarrhea. In acute cases of vomiting and diarrhea, withhold food and water for twenty-four hours to give the gut a rest. Feed the dog for a short time on the following mixture (the quantities given are for a I2-kg dog for one day). Boil one cup of dried rice in two cups of water, then add either 115 grams of cottage cheese or the same quantity of cooked lean meat. Potatoes may replace the rice and cooked eggs may replace the cottage cheese.
Feed small amounts every four hours for two to three days. Where home treatment does not cure the problem within twelve hours, veterinary advice should be sought. When taking a dog suffering from diarrhea to the vet, be prepared to tell the vet about its diet and appetite, duration of any current and previous illnesses, environmental changes, vaccination history, past treatments for diarrhea, worming history and daily number of bowel movements. It is advisable to take a sample of the diarrhea (about one tablespoon) to the vet in a clean container.
If this is impossible, examine the feces to determine the consistency, color, odor and any presence of blood or mucus. Diarrhea is one of the principal causes of dehydration in young animals and must be rectified early.

Ear Disorders

Cropping

Cropping is the procedure of reshaping the ear flap by surgical amputation. It is prohibited in many countries including Australia and the United Kingdom. It is allowed in most States of America.

Deafness

This can be a congenital abnormality (White Bull Terriers and Poodles) but is common in aged dogs. There is no treatment, although the dog’s ears should be checked by your vet to ensure that debris is not causing the problem. Deaf dogs are at risk with traffic, particularly if they like to lie on the road.

Fly Bite

Fly bite from blood-sucking flies can cause the tips of the ears to become ulcerated. The dog will shake its head constantly, which may lead to a hematoma on the ear flap.
The best treatment is to apply ointment containing fly repellant to the ears twice daily. If possible, keep the dog in a fly-proof area during daylight hours. To prevent further fly bites, use ordinary insect repellant sprayed on a piece of cloth.
Blood-sucking flies attack the ears causing dermatitis.

Foreign Bodies in the Ear

Foreign bodies in the ear include grass seeds, pieces of twig or even insects, all of which cause the dog extreme distress. If a dog holds its head on one side or paws wildly at the ear, see if you can remove the offending object. If not, see your vet.
A swollen ear-flap indicates hematoma.

Hematoma

A soft swelling on the ear flap could be a hematoma (caused by blood that has effused from a broken blood vessel). It is usually brought on by violent head shaking.
The shaking whiplashes a blood vessel which bursts and allows blood to seep between the cartilage and the skin of the ear. The condition should be treated as soon as possible as the weight of the blood in the ear irritates the dog and leads to further head shaking—this allows enlargement of the hematoma which can quickly involve the whole ear flap. The hematoma can be drained but is very likely to fill up again. A more permanent cure is achieved by suturing the ear flap.

Otitis (Canker)

Otitis (or canker) is an infection of the ear canal. It is more common in dogs with long, floppy, hairy ears which do not allow proper air circulation into the ear canal and hence provide a moist environment suited to the growth of organisms.
The signs of ear infection are usually a discharge, a foul smell or head shaking. Sometimes the dog will hold its head on one side. Quite frequently the initiating cause is ear mites which can lie dormant in the pup from birth, at a later stage multiplying to the point where they inflame the ear canal and allow secondary infections to move in.
Infections of the ear canal can also be caused by bacteria or fungi. Treatment involves cleaning the ear with a 50 per cent peroxide and water solution. plucking out any hair in the ear canal to increase air circulation, and treating with ear drops. As most ear drops contain a local anesthetic to dull the pain, it is important to complete the course of medication and not stop after a few days when the dog appears comfortable, as this may just be the local anesthetic working. Where possible, try to remove any debris from the ear canal daily with cotton buds before applying medication. It is safe to gently work down the ear canal, as the dog’s ear takes a right-angled bend at the bottom before the ear drum. In chronic cases of ear infections, surgery to open the ear canal further to the air can give good results.
An ear-resection operation to expose the ear canal and dry it out.
Dogs often receive injuries to the edges of their ear flaps. These may bleed profusely, and although not serious they can be very difficult to heal, as the dog scratches and shakes its head. The best home treatment is to apply cotton-wool packs to the top of the head, lay the ear flap back on to this and bandage it. Apply acriflavin or a healing ointment to the bleeding area. The bandage holding the flap to the head should be left on for a week to ten days until the wound has completely healed. Failing this, cautery will stop the bleeding.

Elizabethan Collar

A device to prevent the dog licking/biting wounds on the body. It also stops the dog scratching the head and ears.

Euthanasia

This means putting your pet to death painlessly. There are several reasons why people ask a vet to perform euthanasia on their pet. Unacceptable reasons, in my opinion, include going on holidays or going overseas, getting married, moving from a ground-floor home to a unit or flat, grooming becoming too time-consuming, or the breed becoming ‘unfashionable’. Legitimate reasons include old age, severe disease. accident victims with severe injuries, prolonged injury and disposing of strays.
The best and most common method of euthanasia used by vets is an intravenous overdose of anesthetic. This is a painless procedure and the pet dies within six to seven seconds. It is the only method that I can recommend. When the condition of a sick pet is gave, it is important to control emotional attachment to the animal and listen to the vet’s advice. The vet knows how much sickness and pain an animal can take and how it should recover; if the advice is euthanasia, consider it seriously and do not let emotional involvement with the pet affect your decision. I believe pets have an advantage over humans at this point in their lives—the availability of euthanasia—so do not be selfish.

Eye disorders

Blindness

Blindness can occur from not treating any of the conditions described in this section. The most common cause, however, is crystallization of the lens in old age, which reduces or stops the light rays passing through. Senile cataracts, which develop as the dog ages, are seen as a blue haze deep in the dog’s eye. The dog may also bark at known persons some distance away but will quieten when the person moves closer to and is recognized by the dog. Dogs are usually nine or ten years old when the condition begins.
Very little can be done except to be extra careful with the dog in strange surroundings, particularly in traffic. Cocker Spaniels and Poodles are particularly susceptible to this condition. When crystallization is complete, there is a white, pearly, circular centre in the eye which allows little light through to the retina. If these dogs are left in familiar surroundings they can live a happy life. It is possible, depending on eye tests, to remove the lens and return about 40-50 per cent vision.
Pearly-white eyes due to cataracts.

Cataracts
Cataracts can be congenital or can be caused by diabetes mellitus.

Conjunctivitis
Conjunctivitis is an inflammatory condition of the eye and has several causes: An acute injury—caused by a scratch from a piece of grass or twig brushing the cornea. This condition is painful; the dog closes the eye and the eye weeps.
Infection—taking the form of pus appearing in the corners of the eyes. If the pus appears only in one eye, the inflammation is usually caused by a local infection in that eye. (If both eyes are affected, it may indicate distemper or some other general disease.)
Conjunctivitis indicated by red mucous membranes. A blockage of the tear duct—the tear duct usually drains tears from the eye to the inside of the nose. The abscessed root of a molar tooth—in this case the conjunctivitis is usually accompanied by a lump just below the eye on the dog’s face; sometimes the lump has a discharge. Conjunctivitis is a painful condition for which it is wise to seek veterinary advice. Normal eye-washes are usually not strong enough to be an effective cure.

Corneal Dermoid
Corneal dermoid—a plate of epithelial tissue on the surface of the cornea—is an island of skin that usually grows hairs from its surface which grow toward and irritate the cornea. It can be removed surgically.

Dry Eye

Dry eye refers to the absence of the normal tear film covering the corneal surface. It gives the cornea a dry and lusterless appearance. It is seen in all breeds but particularly Yorkshire Terriers, Chihuahuas and Cocker Spaniels.

It may be caused by severe conjunctivitis, distemper, old age or accidental damage to the tear gland. Once an eye becomes dry, the tear film must be replaced by artificial tears immediately or permanent damage can occur. A surgical technique in which a salivary duct is moved from the mouth to the eye gives satisfactory results.

Ectropion
Ectropion is eversion or sagging of the lower eyelid. Breeds commonly affected are Bloodhounds, Basset Hounds, St Bernards, Great Danes and Cocker Spaniels. Ectropion can predispose the eye to excessive drying and the easy entrance of foreign material into the conjunctival sac, which results in conjunctivitis or corneal infection. Rectification is by surgery.

Entropion
Entropion is inversion of the eyelid margin. The inherited form of this condition is seen most commonly in King Charles Spaniels, St Bernards, Cocker Spaniels, Golden and Labrador Retrievers, Irish Setters and English Bulldogs.
It may be noticed when the puppies are born but usually doesn’t cause any outward signs of disease until the dog is a few months old. In the mild form, the disease may correct itself as the dog ages. Mechanical damage is caused by the eyelashes rubbing on the eyeball. Treatment of entropion is by surgically excising an elliptical piece of skin from the eyelid to evert the eyelid margin. This plastic surgery is usually successful.

Glaucoma
Glaucoma is an increase in the normal pressure of the fluid within the eye. The usual signs are blueness of the lens, and conjunctivitis. Medications can control it.

Pupil Constriction
Constriction of the pupils occurs normally in bright light; it may also occur when the dog has ingested a toxin or poison.

Pupil Dilation
Pupil dilation occurs normally in dull light, but it also occurs in tick poisoning and sickness.

Strabismus
Strabismus—in-turning or out-turning of the eye—is usually seen in the broad-headed or short-headed breeds such as the Pekinese or Pug.

Third Eyelid Deformities
Most animals have a ‘third eyelid’—a necessitating membrane—in the inner corner of the eye, controlled by an involuntary muscle. It acts to lubricate the eye, particularly in dry, dusty conditions. However, when the dog is ill, or under the influence of a tranquilizing agent, the muscle controlling the lid may relax, allowing the membrane to cover one-third of the eye. Pet owners often refer to this as a ‘skin growing over the eye’.
Deformities of the third eyelid—an inwards-to-outwards rolling of third eyelid margin—is usually seen in large breeds of dogs, having its highest incidence in Great Danes, German Shepherds, St Bernards, Old English Sheepdogs and Afghans. The condition usually appears before the animal is one year old and causes a mild form of corneal irritation. It can be corrected surgically.
Trichiasis — an extra row of eyelashes.

Trichiasis
Trichiasis—an extra row of eyelashes—causes irritation of the cornea. It occurs most frequently in Pekinese, French Poodles, Boxers, English Bulldogs and Cocker Spaniels.
The eyelashes can be removed by depilation.

Tumors
Tumors—for example, wart-like growths—can occur on the margin of the eyelid and can develop to a point where they physically and mechanically damage the cornea. They should be removed surgically.

Faces

Examine the stools regularly for the presence of adult worms or segments of adult parasites. The most common is tapeworm segments which are the size of cucumber seeds, a grayish-pink color, and active. They are usually on the outside of the stool. Roundworms are very common in puppies’ stools. They are white, coiled, 5-8 centimeters long, the thickness of a pencil-lead, and pointed at ends.
The presence of blood, undigested meat or fat globs in the stool indicates illness. Note the odor from the stools. The color may also be of great clinical significance. The usual color is brown because of pigments excreted in feces from the liver. A dark brown to black stool ma indicate either that the animal is on a high meat diet or the blood pigments are present. Grayish-White or clay-colored stools may indicate bile obstruction. Light brow or tan-colored stools are frequently seen in nursing puppies and dogs on a diet high in milk. A green stock containing undigested material indicates a liver problem. A red stool may indicate a recent bleeding attack in the low bowel or rectum.
Normal stools contain only a small amount of mucus. but chronic enteritis, chronic irritants, malabsorption c: high doses of oral antibiotics over long periods may lead to excessive mucus. For further examination of the stop: microscopically, a sample of about one dessertspoonful ( milliliters) should be taken in a clean, labelled container to your veterinary surgeon.

Feet

The dog’s feet are often presented with problems. Unclad they come into contact with broken glass, sharp tins, nail, tar, acids, detergents and other harmful materials.

Cut Pads or Webbing

Cuts in the pads or in the webbing between the toes bleed profusely as this area is very vascular. Bleeding can be stopped initially by the application of a tourniquet and a firm bandage around the foot. Where the cut has gone right through the pad or skin, it is best to have the wound sutured, as sensitive tissues underneath the pad’s surface would otherwise cause the dog prolonged irritation when they touch sand and gravel.

Fish Hooks
Fish hooks are commonly found in the feet (and also in the lips after fish bait has been eaten). Do not try to pull a hook back against the barb. Instead, the shank of the hook should be cut and the passage of the barb continued through the skin. This may require a general anesthetic.

Foreign Bodies Between the Toes
Foreign bodies between the toes are usually grass seeds. thorns or pieces of stick. Sometimes the skin may heal over the site of the wound and days later an abscess will form. A chronically draining sinus may be the first symptom.
Often a general anesthetic has to be given while a probe is used to find the foreign body. If possible, where there is a hole in the skin, irrigate with 50 per cent peroxide and water for several days. The foreign body may wash out.

Interdigital Cysts
These are swellings that appear between the toes and are caused by a blockage of the sweat glands in the feet. Soak the foot in a bowl of warm water with salt, at the rate of one tablespoon per liter. This will bring the cyst to a head. When it ruptures, clean the area with warm water and salt (1 tablespoon salt per liter) three or four times a day. Occasionally the swelling may have to be lanced by a vet.
Sometimes a foreign body (for example, a grass seed or splinter) causes the problem.

Interdigital Dermatitis
Interdigital dermatitis is an inflammatory, irritating dermatitis between the toes. It is usually precipitated by an allergic reaction to a grass which causes the dog to lick between the toes. The licking combined with the allergic re action allows bacteria to multiply between the claws. Ap- plications of astringent agents such as mercurochrome, triple dye or gentian violet will dry out the areas. The dog should be prevented from licking the areas by use of an Elizabethan collar or a bucket. Sometimes antibiotics and antihistamine injections may be necessary.

Female Disorders

By far the highest incidence of the female disorders listed below occur in undersexed mature bitches not being used for breeding. The incidence of these disorders in bitches desexed before they have a litter and under one year of age is practically zero.

Mammary Tumors
Mammary tumor is the hard lump surrounding the nipple. Mammary tumors are one of the problems of older bitches, usually undersexed bitches which have not had a litter and which suffer from pseudopregnancy. There are even the smaller rheumatoid type, should always be removed surgically as soon as they are detected. The longer the tumor is allowed to remain, the greater the danger of secondary growths appearing, not only in the mammary gland, but also in the lymphatic glands within the abdomen. It is important to take the bitch to a vet as soon as any mammary lump is detected.

Mastitis
Mastitis is hot, swollen mammary glands caused by bacterial infection. Mastitis means inflammation of the mammary gland. It is caused by bacterial infection, the bacteria usually gaining entry through scratches or wounds in the teats. These wounds are caused by hungry pups, most often when the bitch is short of milk because of an inadequate diet. The first signs are restlessness, possibly an elevated temperature, and loss of appetite. Examination will show a hot, painful and markedly swollen gland. If the condition is not brought under control quickly, all the milk will disappear and her entire litter may die. Fortunately, mastitis in the bitch responds rapidly to modem antibiotic therapy and prompt treatment is invariably successful. Hot fomentation together with manual stripping of the gland will help the condition resolve quickly.

Metritis/Pyometron

Pus discharging from the vulva.

Metritis is an inflammation of the womb which most often occurs after whelping. It can be caused by the presence of dead pups, injury during, whelping, etc. The first signs are usually discharge from the vulva, loss of appetite and a high temperature. This condition is very serious and requires immediate veterinary attention and antibiotic treatment. Treatment is usually successful, but occasionally a pyometron (womb full of pus) may develop. In these cases, a hysterectomy is needed

Polyps

Polyps are wart-like growths on long stalks which form in the uterus. Hard lumps can be felt in the uterus. There may be a bloody discharge, but the bitch is otherwise completely normal. The only effective treatment is a complete hysterectomy.

Prolapse

Prolapse describes the condition where the cervix and the vagina fold back on themselves and protrude from the vagina. Sometimes the bladder is included in the prolapse and very occasionally the uterus as well. It appears as a red inflamed mass protruding from the vulva which the bitch licks incessantly. Treatment is to replace the prolapse surgically under general anesthetic and suture the organs in place.
Vaginitis
Vaginitis means an inflammation of the lining of the vagina. It is usually caused by bacteria infecting an injury caused by mating or a difficult whelping. The bitch shows considerable discomfort and may repeatedly strain as though in labour. There may be a red or yellow discharge. Treatment involves a course of antibiotics together with daily insertion of a pessary.
Fever
Normal body temperature of a dog is 38.5°C. Body temperatures higher than 41°C for prolonged periods can cause permanent brain damage. Temperatures above 43°C are associated with high mortality.
The pet with a fever is usually depressed, off its food and lethargic; some will appear to be cold and shivery. Feverish dogs usually seek out a cool place such as a linoleum or tile floor. The dog’s nose may be wet or dry. The causes are Overexertion from excitement or an overactive thyroid gland.
Obstructions to the panting or heat-loss mechanisms. Obstructions in the air passages of the short-faced breeds—Pugs, for example.
Paralysis—for example, because of ticks. Confinement in a hot, humid, poorly ventilated area. Septicemia and infectious diseases.
Where the animal has a high temperature, it is important to reduce the temperature or at least stop it getting higher. Place wet towels over the dog, keep it in a cool place, place it before a fan, administer half a tablet of aspirin, and seek veterinary advice as soon as possible.

Fights

Whatever you do, don’t try to stop a dog fight with your bare hands. Use water, or hoses or garbage cans. If you are quick and have presence of mind, grab a tail and fling the dog away.

Poisoning First Aid

Poisons may be absorbed internally or through the skin or via the respiratory tract. If the animal was in physical contact with toxic or corrosive material, wash its skin clean with large quantities of water.
If the dog has eaten a poison, induce vomiting by administering orally a tablespoon of bicarbonate of soda to a quarter of a cup of water, or 5 milliliters of hydrogen peroxide.
If the dog is excited or convulsing, try to protect it from injuring itself.
In all cases, after the first aid measures (given above) have been carried out, take the dog immediately to a vet. Don’t forget to take a sample of the suspected poison and its container along to the vet with the animal. This is important because the medications the vet must use will depend on the type of poison the dog has ingested. The vet will also be able to give the dog any necessary supportive treatment using medications and treatment which you will not have available at home.
Should a vet not be handy, try to induce vomiting (see above). Remember, these solutions should only be given in an emergency when there is no vet available, as neither solution is particularly efficient in making the animal vomit. It is also possible that such fluids given orally will pass through the stomach and wash the poison into the small intestines where it will be absorbed more rapidly.
Most poisons produce early gastrointestinal signs, such as vomiting, and progress rapidly to fits and weakness in the legs. Others will cause neurological signs such as fainting or trembling. Urine color can sometimes help in the diagnosis: the carbamate in one snail bait produces a bright blue urine; the metaldehyde in another snail bait produces a light green urine.
There are so many potentially toxic substances now on the market that it is impossible to mention them all. Only the most common problems will be covered here.

FIRST AID BOX

The number of things that could be kept in an emergency first aid box is limitless. The following is a basic list.
A roll of 5-centimeter wide adhesive bandage, such as
Elastoplast
Two rolls of conforming gauze bandage or clean white cloth
Cotton-wool
Antiseptic wash (e.g. chlorhexidine)
Hydrogen peroxide 3%
A tape to muzzle the dog
Scissors
Guillotine-type nail cutters
50 milliliters liquid paraffin
Tweezers
Thermometer
Acriflavin, mercurochrome, triple dye, zinc cream
Wound dressing powder (preferably one containing an antibiotic)
Soluble aspirin
Bicarbonate of soda
Antibiotic/cortisone skin ointment
Antibiotic dispenser
Antibiotic eye ointment
Eye wash
Flea powder
Flea rinse

Fits

When the dog starts to have a fit, leave it in a dark room and keep it quiet. If possible, place a peg or other wooden object between the dog’s teeth and pull out the tongue. The fit usually lasts only two or three minutes. Afterwards the dog will be exhausted.
If the fit continues longer than three minutes, causes other than epilepsy, such as POISONING, should be suspected. Among the most common causes of poisoning are snail bait and strychnine. Other common causes are insecticidal rinses used on dogs to control fleas and ticks. If this is the case, wash the dog immediately, use copious amounts of water and soap to prevent further absorption of the toxic material. In the case of snail bait and strychnine, take the dog to a vet immediately so that an injection can be given to make it vomit. If you are a long way from a vet, try to induce vomiting by administering a tablespoon of bicarbonate of soda to a quarter cup of water. These poisons can quickly be fatal.
Fits can be caused by epilepsy, poisoning by insecticidal chemicals used in washing dogs, strychnine, snail bait, distemper, rabies, meningitis or low glucose, levels in the blood to the brain.
Epilepsy in pups usually occurs when they are cutting teeth, from two to six months, particularly if they are heavily infested with roundworms. A roundworm-info, pup is typically pot-bellied. The actual cause in these cast-, is not understood.
Toy breeds are particularly susceptible to fits, but often medication will help them to grow out of the fits by six around seven months of age. In young puppies the exact causes of the fits are not understood, but it may be due to pressure on the developing brain from the cranial cavity. It is rare for this type of fit to continue through to middle age.
When it occurs in older dogs, the cause can be shock. fear, injury, sexual excitement, pain or stress. Sometimes a sudden change of temperature can bring on attacks. The fit can be small (petit mal), where the dog remains on its feet. chomps its jaws and froths at the mouth, or it can be a major fit (grand mal), where the dog collapses to its side. partly unconscious, with its legs extended rigidly from its body. The head is usually turned back and the dog ma-, urinate or defecate.
In older dogs, fits may also be due to brain tumors or other pathological space-occupying lesions within the cranial cavity.
Pregnant or whelping bitches may suffer from fits, shaking or twitching because of low sugar or calcium levels. In these cases, stop the pups suckling, administer calcium tablets, give the bitch milk to drink, and take her immediately to the vet

Flatulence

Flatulence occurring in bottle-fed pups is serious. It may be because of overfeeding, the use of unsterile feeding equipment, or feeding a formula that is too high in carbohydrates. The signs are an acute stress condition and a distended stomach. Prompt attention by a veterinary surgeon is vital.
Chronic intestinal flatulence and anal release is common in adult dogs, particularly the large breeds, though it can be embarrassing to owners. Flatulence is an indication of excessive bacterial fermentation in the bowel and is usually caused by feeding a high carbohydrate diet—potatoes. other root vegetables, beans, cauliflowers, cabbage an,: onions may be at fault. Cereals, milk and sweets can cause upsets. Some of the commercial rations with a high carbohydrate content may cause the problem. Dogs that tend to eat their food too fast and gulp air may also suffer from the problem. Change the dog’s diet to a protein-type ration, ensure it is not constipated and have it treated with a wide-spectrum intestinal antibiotic to reduce the population of fermenting bacteria in the bowel.

Flystrike

This is a common condition in warmer countries during the summer months and is caused by flies biting the dog It particularly affects dogs that are chained or have restricted access to sheltered areas. The flies bite prominent spots such as the tips of the ears or the highest fold in the ear. Long-haired dogs can also be flyblown around the crutch area and wherever there are sores protected by matted long hair.
Long hair should be cut away and any maggots physically removed. Douse the area with an insecticidal rinse. Where the animal cannot be placed in a fly-proofed area, use insecticidal ointments or sprays for protection. If the dog does not like the sound of the pressure pack, spray the insecticide on to a cloth and wipe it over the ears. This should be done at least twice a day.

Fracture of the Penis

The male dog has a small bone in his penis. Occasionally this bone is fractured (usually during attempted mating). Clinical signs are a severe swelling and acute pain. Diagnosis is by X-ray.

Frostbite

Frostbite is uncommon in dogs, but it can affect the ears and the feet. Treat quickly with warmth and massage. Sudden heat should not be applied. The area should be wrapped in cotton-wool after being dressed with an astringent agent such as acriflavin. The dog should be offered warm milk, and all parts of its body should be rubbed and massaged. Veterinary attention is essential if the part of the body is to be saved

Gangrene

Gangrene is the death of body tissues following degeneration of the tissues involved. Restricted circulation in an area because of tight bandages or plaster casts can sometimes result in gangrene. Fortunately these days, with modern antibiotics, gangrene is rarely seen.

Glandular Enlargement

The dog has a large number of lymph nodes situated throughout the body. These have several functions, the most important being to filter the blood to remove infection from local areas as well as certain other unwanted matter. When infection is present, the glands may swell

Grass Eating

Grass eating is common in dogs. It is generally used as a mechanism to stimulate vomiting to rid the stomach of stale food and may also be a symptom of gastritis, digestive discomfort or worm infestation. Another theory is that dogs eat grass as a source of vitamins.

Heart Disease

The heart can be considered as a four-chambered pump with valves between the chambers. Disease may affect any one of the chambers, the valves, the muscles that make the heart function or the nerve centers that control the heart movement and beat.
For any heart disease, veterinary attention is essential. For first aid when the dog has a heart attack, it should be kept as quiet as possible in a darkened room, and stimuli of any type should be avoided. Where the dog suffers from a continuous cough, and veterinary advice is not immediately obtainable, a small amount (1 to 5 milliliters, or up to a teaspoon) of brandy or whisky may be given in milk, depending on the size of the dog, and a quarter to one codeine tablet as additional treatment while waiting for veterinary advice.
The most common heart condition in dogs is congestive heart failure. It is particularly common in Poodles. The initial clinical sign of this condition is a cough, sometimes referred to as a cardiac cough, which is stimulated by exercise or excitement. This is due to the congestive nature of the heart failure. Subsequent signs include difficulty in breathing, reduced tolerance to physical exercise, enlargement of the liver and a filling of the abdomen with fluid (this gives the dog a pregnant look). Treatment is aimed at eliminating the fluid accumulation by decreasing the work of the heart, reducing salt intake in the food and encouraging cardiac compensation by means of drugs.
Cardiovascular disease in dogs is not closely associated with diet problems, except for the consideration of salt in congested heart failure. A low salt diet should be considered only as an adjunct to other medical therapy and only when clinical signs of congestive heart failure are present.
A fluid-filled abdomen, usually due to chronic heart failure. A dog with a circulatory condition requires food with a low sodium content and a fairly high level of protein and carbohydrate. Such a dog usually cannot excrete sodium, which encourages the fluid within the body to stay in the tissues, which in turn impedes the circulation. A low salt diet can be formulated from boiled beef or chicken (discard the water used for boiling), together with rice, oatmeal or macaroni, and low-salt, bulk-forming vegetables such as corn, squash, beans or peas. Vegetable oils and honey are low in salt and seasoning agents such as garlic or onion powder may tempt the dog’s appetite. Avoid the standard commercial pet foods, canned or prepared meat, dairy products, cheese and pastries and ‘treat’ tidbits such as crackers, chips and salted nuts. It is difficult to create a palatable low salt diet.
Heart-worm is also a common cause of mechanical congestive heart failure.

Heatstroke

Heatstroke heatstroke is a problem in Pekinese, Pugs and Boxers, those breeds with pushed-in faces; as well as in the readily excitable breeds such as Poodles and Terriers. In the former group, it is a problem of deficient respiration, whereas in the latter group it is a result of physical activity in hot or humid environments. All dogs, irrespective of breed, are susceptible to heatstroke if confined in hot conditions—for example, in a closed car.
Heatstroke is relatively rapid in onset. The patient pants incessantly and drools saliva, yelps with distress, and champs the saliva into large bubbles which adhere to the face and forelegs as a froth or foam. There is a staring expression of apprehension and concern. The patient becomes excited with the discomfort and moves constantly to change position. This excessive muscular activity generates an increase in body temperature which further worsens the condition. Muscular weakness with distinct tremors and later spasms will be evident from the onset of distress. The heatstroke patient in a collapsed condition with muscular spasms will invariably die. Vomiting is a frequent symptom, and persistent vomiting increases the risk of death. A body temperature of 42-43°C is usually fatal, even when present for less than one hour.
First aid for heatstroke Since excess body temperature and reduced ability to lose body heat are the primary problems, any first aid measures should be directed at resolving these problems quickly. Remove the patient from any confined space to facilitate an airflow in the general vicinity.
Spray the dog with cold water from a hose or iced water and place it in front of a large electric fan. Ice packs may be applied to the head and neck. Cold-water enemas are also of value in lowering internal body temperature. Massage the legs to aid general circulation and heat loss from the skin. Do not give sedatives to an overexcited dog, as they have an adverse effect on its blood pressure. When the patient’s temperature has fallen to the normal level, about 38.5°C, it is usually safe to dispense with first aid temporarily and seek veterinary assistance. This will involve intravenous infusions, therapy against secondary infection and monitoring the kidneys for damage.
Preventing heatstroke Ensure that whenever dogs must be confined in a restricted space, they are protected from the direct rays of the sun. Adequate ventilation and plenty of cold drinking water are essential. Feeding times should be changed to early morning or late evening in hot weather, as the digestion of food results in a higher body temperature. Clipping the coat, contrary to popular belief, is not necessary, since the coat provides an insulation against the rays of the sun in a normal, healthy outdoor dog.

Hernia

Hernia is the protrusion of an organ or part of an organ outside the space it normally occupies, while it is still enclosed in the membrane lining the cavity in which the organ is normally contained—that is, the protruding part is enclosed in a sac of lining membrane when it enters the incorrect position. The commonest forms of hernias are diaphragmatic, inguinal, perineal and umbilical.

Diaphragmatic Hernia

Although the name hernia is used, this condition is strictly speaking a rupture. It is seen in dogs that have suffered from a severe accident or fall. The diaphragm is torn and parts of the abdominal organs enter the chest cavity. Respiration is restricted as the lungs become squashed. Surgical repair is necessary.

Inguinal Hernia

Inguinal hernias are seen most commonly in adults of either sex. A swelling occurs in the groin, usually on side only, as part of the intestines press down through a weakened muscle wall. In the male, the hernia may ins the scrotum, in which case it is often termed as scrotal hernia. Surgical repair is necessary.

Perineal Hernia

Perineal hernia, seen mainly in elderly dogs, is a soft swelling on one side of the anus. This type of hernia is not to repair, but surgery is often attempted.

Umbilical Hernia

An umbilical hernia is usually seen in puppies, where umbilical ring does not close or is damaged. A bubble of fat forms in the opening, it may be pressed back into the abdomen but will reappear. An umbilical hernia can sometimes be caused by premature or careless tearing of the umbilical cord at birth. These hernias should be repaired where possible to prevent strangulation as a result of the hernia and causing the death of the dog.

Hip Dysplasia

Hip dysplasia is an inherited condition in which the ball and socket joint of the hip does not fit properly, the resultant irritation causing arthritis. It can be difficult to diagnose, as dogs that are clinically normal can be found to have hip dysplasia on radiographic examination. Puppies bred from parents and grandparents that are radiographically free from hip dysplasia may still develop the condition, although the chances of it occurring are greatly reduced. It is most common in breeds that grow to more than 15 kilograms at three months of age. Breeds most likely to be affected are Golden Labradors, Retrievers, Boxers, German Shepherds, German Short-haired Pointers, Dobermans, Great Danes and St Bernards. The condition is very rarely seen in greyhounds, however, as selective breeding has operated to eliminate affected dogs (which race poorly) from breeding programs.
The symptoms of hip dysplasia include reluctance to rise from the sitting position. The affected dog usually takes two or three awkward steps before the hip joint war:: allowing the dog to walk normally. Affected dogs e:. a ‘roly-poly’ action when viewed from the rear. The condition may prevent a dog from walking as early as seven months or as late as old age. Most Labradors some degree of hip dysplasia; by the time they are nine ten years old, it is rare to find a Labrador who can SU:- up quickly and walk without hesitation.
Dogs cannot be certified free of hip dysplasia by X-7. until twelve months of age. Treatment is by surgery. T: involves cutting the muscles inside the legs or removing I: hip joints. Alternatively, anti-inflammatory tablets a:- pain-killers may be used. The best prevention is not breed from affected dogs.

Incontinence

Incontinence is the unexpected passing of urine. In puppies this is usually because of nervousness and wears off in time.
In older dogs the causes are quite varied, including kidney disease, bladder disease, paralysis of the nerve supplying the bladder, bladder stones, tumors, enlarged prostate glands in the male and hormonal deficiencies in desexed females. Because the condition has a number of causes, it is best to take a 30-milliliter sample of urine along to the vet, together with an exact history of when and where the dog passes the urine. Where the incontinence is caused by the bladder becoming over-full and the excess dripping out, it is essential to ensure that the bladder is emptied twice a day using gentle pressure on the flanks if this is possible. Long-backed dogs that have had a back problem are often incontinent. Hormone therapy is useful for desexed females.

Incoordination

Incoordination can be the result of tick paralysis, central nervous system diseases, back problems, conditions of the middle ear, meningitis and encephalitis.

Infection

Infection is caused by micro-organisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi or protozoa. The infection can be generalized (for example, septicemia) or localized (for example, an abscess).

Infectious Diseases

Diseases may be caused by many different viruses, and a single virus may produce many different manifestations of disease, for example, distemper. Viral diseases cannot be cured because few antibiotics or other drugs will kill the virus. However, they may often be prevented by quarantine, good hygiene and management and by vaccination.

Canine Parvoviral Enteritis

The signs of the parvovirus are vomiting and diarrhea of short duration. It may occur in an isolated dog or appear in an outbreak form in a kennel, affecting both puppies and adults simultaneously. Some dogs will cease eating and vomit for twenty-four to forty-eight hours and recover without treatment. Other dogs may have prolonged vomiting and diarrhea, and if treatment is not instituted they may die of the combined effects of dehydration and electrolyte imbalance. A third variation is the dog with prolonged vomiting and diarrhea with a severe bloody diarrhea developing. The dog will die within twenty-four hours.
The cause of this disease is a virus. There is no specific cure, but correction of the dehydration and electrolyte imbalance quickly and vigorously by the use of intravenous fluids is important. Veterinary attention is essential. Prevention is by vaccination.

Distemper

Distemper is a highly contagious viral disease which is universal in dog populations and is transmitted through contaminated objects or by close contact. The incubation period is about nine days, the first signs being a high temperature for one to three days; the temperature may fluctuate from high to normal for a week. Pus accumulates in the corners of the eyes, which squint.
Sometimes there is a nasal discharge. The dog is usually depressed, off its food and develops diarrhea. Coughing may precede fatal pneumonia. A dog may recover from these symptoms and then succumb to further complications about four weeks later. These include nervous signs involving convulsive seizures, inability to stand, jerking movements of the head and jaws and paddling motions of the legs.
Sometimes there is a trembling of the muscles in the temple, just in front of the ear. The dog may wander aimlessly, unaware of its surroundings. Attacks of distemper vary from an apparently mild infection to obviously serious disease. The disease can last as little as ten days but more often will be prolonged for several weeks or months, with intervening periods of apparent improvement followed by regression. A typical distemper case is not difficult to diagnose, although many cases do not present the signs until the condition has advanced. Distemper should be suspected in all sick puppies, particularly if fever is present and there is no other apparent cause. Distemper is often confused with canine hepatitis and leptospirosis.
Prevention is best achieved by immunizing the pregnant bitch halfway through the pregnancy to give the puppies an increased immunity at birth. All puppies should be immunized at six weeks and again at sixteen weeks. Because the condition is caused by a viral agent, treatment is not always effective. It is, however, always preferable to treat the dog because even the most serious cases can sometimes show a remarkable improvement.

Hepatitis

Hepatitis is a contagious viral disease characterized by a slight temperature, congestion of the mucous membranes and severe depression. Dogs of all ages are susceptible.
The disease is transmitted through urine and droppings.
The incubation period is six to nine days, with the virus localizing in the liver and kidneys. The degree of severity varies from a slight fever to fatal illness. The first sign is an increased temperature, lasting for one to six days and usually fluctuating between quite high and near normal.
General signs are apathy, loss of appetite, thirst and conjunctivitis, accompanied by discharge from the eyes, mouth and nose. The mucous membranes and tonsils become congested and there will be signs of abdominal pain and sometimes vomiting. After the period of general illness ends, the animal eats well but regains weight slowly. Some 25 per cent of sufferers develop a redness in the eyes seven to ten days after the disappearance of the acute stage of the illness. Although the disease can be fatal, there is a fair recovery rate. Vaccination, combined with distemper immunization, is very effective in preventing the disease. The mother should be vaccinated halfway through her pregnancy and the pups at six and sixteen weeks. Live hepatitis vaccines may cause keratitis

Herpes Virus

Herpes virus is a newly recognized, yet fairly common, fatal viral disease which occurs in pups under a month old. The virus kills the tissues in the liver and kidneys and causes pneumonia. The pups usually die within twenty four hours. There is no vaccine.

Leptospirosis

Leptospirosis is caused by an organism called a spirochaete, which can be transmitted to humans. Nearly half the rat population carries it, and dogs become infected after eating food contaminated by rat urine or by eating infected rats. Dogs of all ages are affected, males being more susceptible than females.
After an incubation period of five to fifteen days, the disease may have a sudden onset characterized by slight weakness, refusal to eat, vomiting, high temperature and often mild congestion in the eye. Within two days the temperature drops sharply, depression is more pronounced, breathing becomes labored and thirst develops. Muscular soreness and stiffness develop, particularly in the hind legs.
The mucous membranes of the mouth first show patches like a graze or burn, which later dry out and drop off in sections. In some cases the tongue may show dead patches of skin and the entire tip may drop off.
Prevention is by vaccination. Always keep your dog on a leash when in an area frequented by other dogs. A constant supply of fresh water should be available to discourage random drinking. Garbage, pools and fishponds are often contaminated and are prime sources of infection. It is essential in all cases to administer an antibiotic combination for at least ten days. Dehydration and acidosis can be treated with fluid therapy at the vet’s surgery.

Myocarditis

The usual sign of myocarditis is that puppies three to seven weeks of age are found dead or dying following a brief period of difficult breathing. Those affected are usually vigorous, healthy puppies with no prior indication of any illness. The mortality rate within a litter may vary from 30 to 100 per cent with deaths occurring over a period of two to three weeks and in some cases up to six weeks. The cause is at present unknown but it is strongly suspected that it is caused by a virus. Treatment is non-specific.

Rabies

Rabies is a virus disease of all mammals, including humans, which is spread by the saliva of an infected animal entering the bloodstream of another animal, usually by a bite. The period of incubation varies from two weeks to six months, and depends on the site of infection. The virus has to travel to the brain from the point where it entered the body; therefore the further from the head the bite occurred, the longer the incubation period. Symptoms are basically a change of temperament followed by a period of great excitement. Finally, if the dog survives long enough, a period of paralysis follows. The excitement stage is characterized by the dog attacking, without fear, anything that moves or makes a noise. The dog may run for miles. In the paralytic stage the dog shows symptoms of paralysis of the lower jaw and limbs. Collapse quickly follows, then death.
Any person bitten by such a dog should report to their doctor as soon as possible. The dog suspected of suffering from rabies should not be killed but should be confined in a safe area from which escape is impossible. This is necessary for correct diagnosis of the disease. As rabies is fatal and can infect humans, it is essential that all control measures be rigidly enforced and that suspected cases be reported immediately. Check with your veterinarian if vaccination is necessary in your area.

Insecticide Rinses

Organophosphate compounds are the common active ingredient in many flea collars, liquid dog washes, aerosols and flea powders. Poisoning with insecticidal rinses is usually due to incorrect concentration. Sometimes the correct concentration of solution will have a detrimental effect in very young, aged or debilitated animals.
Poisoning is by absorption through the skin or by licking. The symptoms vary depending on the drug, dose received and individual sensitivity, but the usual symptoms are salivation, muscle tremor, shivering, weakness in the hind legs, convulsions, vomiting, diarrhea and constriction of the pupils followed by dilation. Immediately this form of poisoning is recognized, wash the dog in copious quantities of fresh water to prevent further absorption of insecticides, then take it to the vet.

Jaundice

A jaundiced condition develops where there is an concentration of bile pigment in the blood, yellowish staining of the white of the eye, the membrane of the mouth and, in severe cases, the self. It may be caused by: leptospirosis; the after-effect a blood transfusion; sclerosis and liver tumors; bile duct obstruction. If your dog appears jaundice is best to consult a vet.

Kidney Disease (Nephritis)

Nephritis simply means inflammation of the kidneys. a common and serious disease in aging dogs and difficult to treat. It always requires the attention of a
The first sign is an increased thirst and the passing excess urine. While the dog’s appetite may be good, it loses weight. Some dogs will have foul breath. The dog might vomit, particularly in the morning, and especially after drinking water. In advanced cases the dog may collapse.
The cause is usually an infection of the kidneys, and veterinary attention should be sought immediately to avoid irreversible damage to the delicate structure of the kidneys. A 30-milliliter sample of urine should accompany the dog to the vet. This is best collected by confining the dog overnight with water, then taking the dog on a leash into the garden and quietly collecting the urine in a clean shallow vessel. Once the dog has received the appropriate treatment, it should be fed a special diet.
A dog with severe kidney trouble often excretes a lot of protein in its urine, so extra protein should be supple: preferably white meat (rabbit or chicken) or fish. Other suitable foods include cereal, milk, egg custard, cheese (small quantities), hard-boiled eggs, vegetables, boiled and rice pudding. Extra vitamin B should be supplied, yeast tablet two or three times a week is ideal.

Long backs

Corgis and Dachshunds are the main sufferers of back trouble, which may lead to paralysis of the hind legs. Bassets rarely have trouble with their backs. Paralysis of the back legs may be of a temporary nature, lasting one or two weeks, or it may become permanent, necessitating euthanasia.

Milk Fever or Eclampsia

Milk fever is a calcium deficiency in the blood of the bitch, caused by loss of calcium in the milk to the pups. It is more commonly seen in smaller breeds with large litters but can occur in any breed. Milk fever most commonly occurs two or three weeks after the birth of the pups, although it can happen much earlier, and can be rapidly fatal if immediate treatment is not given by a vet. The first symptoms are weakness and trembling of the limbs; it then progresses to convulsions, paralysis and heart failure. An all-meat diet will aggravate the condition because of :he low calcium and high phosphorus content of meat.
Giving the bitch milk to drink helps by supplying calcium, but a balanced dry food diet is more helpful in preventing calcium deficiency. It also provides the calories necessary to make milk. There is some evidence that heavy oral calcium supplementation before lactation may actually increase the likelihood of calcium deficiency during lactation, as it causes a depression of the mechanism whereby the bitch dissolves the calcium in her bones to supply the calcium in her blood.

Mouth Disorders

Dogs do not sweat through the skin. They exchange most of their heat through the mouth, and can extend the tongue to increase the surface exposed to the air.
Most young puppies up to six months of age bite and chew a lot in the process of cutting their teeth. Some exercise on sticks, others on shoes, slippers, socks and even furniture if they get the chance. One method of satisfying a pup’s requirements is to give it several ‘chews’, which are pieces of rolled-up, dehydrated cattle hide. Use these with caution, as small pieces may rehydrate in the intestine and cause a blockage. Another solution is to give the pup large ox shank bones from the butcher. These shanks have sheaths of meat and tissue which are good for the dog to chew and tear. Make sure that the bone is not one that can fracture into sharp pieces.

Bad Breath
Foul breath can be caused by eating raw meat, or meat buried too long, by tartar build-up on the teeth, or inflammation of the gums (gingivitis). This causes the gums to fall away from the teeth, allowing food to be trapped and then decay. Ulcers, viral attacks and bacterial infection can all cause bad breath. Bacterial infections of tonsils or lymph glands of the mouth can lead to tonsillitis, pharyngitis or laryngitis, all of which give bad breath. Other causes may be gastrointestinal upsets or kidney trouble. In sugar diabetes there is a distinct smell of acetone.

Bad breath is commonly caused by tartar on the teeth and infected gums.
Spaniels often suffer from an extremely unpleasant mouth odor which arises from ulceration of the outer surface of the lower lip. This occurs in the deep creases seen in this breed which fill with saliva and then become infected. Creases so affected should be cleaned, washed -.- Phisohex soap, or a 50 per cent hydrogen peroxide/«a:_- solution, dried and powdered with a wound dressing powder, or one of the astringent dyes.

Bleeding
Bleeding can occur in small quantities from ulcerated inflamed gums, or from the sockets of bad teeth. The mouth can also bleed from trauma and from cuts receive: from sticks or from car accidents. As the mouth contains many blood vessels, with a particularly large pair under tongue, dogs playing with sharp sticks or bones can easily lacerate a vein. Bleeding from the mouth is difficult to treat without an anesthetic. Dogs rarely suffer a fatal bleed don’t panic—but do see the vet.
Typical gap in the roof of the mouth formation of cleft palate.

Cleft Palate
This is a congenital abnormality in which the roof of the mouth fails to join down the centre, leaving a gap through which food can pass into the respiratory sinuses. subsequently causing pneumonia. Puppies with this abnormality rarely reach maturity because of pneumonia. It car_ be corrected surgically in some cases.

Gums
The normal color of ,a dog’s gums is pink. Pale gums are a symptom of anaemia or shock. If the dog suffers from anaemia, the cause should be identified. If the anaemia could be caused by shock after an accident_ have the dog examined by a vet to make sure it is not bleeding internally. Then offer warm milk and keep the animal in a head-down position. Keep the animal warm. Red gums, particularly around the margins between the gums and the teeth, indicate gingivitis, caused by excess tartar which should be scraped off while the dog is under anesthetic.
A generalized redness of the gums indicates a toxic condition of the blood.
Tumours of the gum, not usually malignant, need only be removed by the vet if they appear to give the dog mechanical discomfort. They are particularly common in Boxers.

Salivation
The most common cause of excessive salivation is car sickness. Anti-sickness tablets are available. Salivation can also be caused by poisons such as Baysol, Defender and Malathion.

Teeth
Normally the dog has forty-two teeth, twenty in the upper jaw and twenty-two in the lower. The six front teeth in the upper and lower jaws are called incisors. Behind these are the single-pointed canines. The premolars and molars are the big grinding teeth at the back of the jaw.
At birth the puppy has no teeth; later temporary (milk teeth) appear. From three to four weeks after birth the incisors erupt, the temporary canines appearing at about the same time. The three temporary premolars appear at about six to nine weeks. During the eruption period, the dog’s teeth should be examined once a week, to check whether there is space for the erupting teeth and whether the adult teeth are appearing before the temporary teeth are shed. Overcrowding of the mouth is particularly common in the pushed-in face breeds such as Maltese Terriers, Chihuahuas, Pekinese, Pugs and Boxers. In the toy breeds, supernumerary or retained deciduous teeth, especially the canines, may be seen at about six months of age. Supernumerary or retained teeth should be extracted.
The retained temporary canine is immediately behind the whiter, shorter less pointed permanent tooth.
Dental decay is on the increase, as more and more owners feed soft prepared foods to their pets. Large bones or hard biscuits help to reduce tartar accumulation. Some breeds, such as Poodles, are particularly susceptible to bad teeth. Once tartar has formed in the margins of the teeth, tooth decay and bad breath quickly follow. If your dog is docile, it is possible to clean the tartar from the teeth with a metallic object or hard plastic, or even to brush the teeth with a hard toothbrush. If the tartar persists or the dog won’t co-operate, it will need its teeth descaled while under a general anesthetic.

Tongue
The natural color of a dog’s tongue is pink—except the Chow’s, which is purple. The tongue is very vascular (that is, it contains many blood vessels) because it is the point of exchange of heat for dogs. Dogs that play with sharp objects can easily lacerate some of the large vessels in the tongue. If this happens, the dog should be taken immediately to the vet.

Nervous Conditions (Chorea)
In dogs chorea is usually a legacy of the distemper virus. Viral and bacterial infections affect the central nervous system. The dog will have a persistent and uncontrollable twitch. This can be in the temporal muscles between the eye and the ears, over the forehead, or it may affect a leg or the whole body. Because the central nervous system does not regenerate, the best that can be hoped for is that the twitch will not get worse.
If the dog begins to have fits or becomes paralyzed, the future is hopeless. Where only a limb is involved, the animal can sometimes live a reasonable life.

Facial paralysis

This is usually due to a traumatic knock to the head which injures the facial nerve. The mouth becomes twisted and the tongue lolls to one side. Usually the nerve repairs and the dog’s future is good—with patience and time the only cure.

Hysteria

An hysterical dog appears to go mad, racing around blindly, howling, oblivious of all attempts to calm it. An attack is usually triggered by excitement or sudden noise. It may last for several minutes or half an hour. At the end, the animal may fall down in a fit or convulsion. The condition is common in toy breeds and in some instances is due to a dietary deficiency of vitamin B I. Treat the dog as for FITS.

Paralysis

The most common form of paralysis (apart from radial paralysis—see below) is paralysis of the hind legs. This can be caused by ticks, severance of the spinal cord in motor vehicle accidents, or disc protrusion in long-backed dogs such as Corgis and Dachshunds. It is important to seek veterinary advice.

Radial Paralysis

The radial nerve provides both motor and sensory functions to the forelimbs. It is particularly susceptible to mechanical damage as it lies just under the skin on top of the bone in the front leg. Traumatic damage to this nerve results in radial paralysis and prevents the dog elevating its foot from the ground. Consequently, the elbow drops and there is a slight curling of the leg from the wrist down. The dog has no feeling in the toes and drags its leg along the ground. In many cases the tops of the toes will be abraded to the point where the bone may show. Treatment and recovery depend on whether the nerve is bruised or actually severed. If the nerve is bruised, there is a possibility of recovery over a three-week period and the toes should be bandaged to prevent further damage. If there is no improvement after three or four weeks, it can be assumed that the nerve is permanently damaged and amputation is advised. Dogs can exist very happily on three legs.

Stroke

A stroke is caused by the rupture of one of the smaller blood vessels in the brain, generally in older dogs. The dog is usually brought to the vet with a history of staggering; the head rolls from side to side. Treatment depends on the part of the body that is affected but invariably requires a long convalescence and much loving care from the owner. If the legs are involved, they should be massaged to prevent muscle atrophy or wasting.

Nose Troubles

A normal, healthy dog has a cold, moist nose. This may become dry and warm from stress, ill health or merely from excessive exercise.
Bleeding
Bleeding from the nose may occur after an accident, from a tumor, poisoning, constant sneezing from sinusitis or after violent exercise.
Changes in color
Changes in the color of pigmentation of the nose are common but do not seem to indicate disease.
Crusting
Crusting on top of the nose can be due to distemper or a fungal dermatitis.
Discharges
A yellow discharge from both nostrils usually indicates an infection lower in the respiratory tract, such as pneumonia. This could result from distemper or the inhalation of medication into the lung.
Pus in both nostrils could also indicate a generalized infection of the sinus cavities of the head. Pus coming from one nostril indicates a local infection of the sinus on that side of the head, a decaying tumor in one of the sinuses or even a decaying tooth root. Offensive discharges often indicate that bony tissues are involved.

Obesity

Many urban dogs suffer from overweight problems. This is the result of the excellent diets provided by the pet food industry coupled with the small territorial space allowed for most dogs. A vicious cycle is established once the dog begins to get fat. The overweight dog is lethargic, and later develops other health problems. These further discourage the exercise which would normally keep the dog slim by burning up energy.
In the wild, overweight animals would not survive as they would not be fast enough to catch their prey. As with human dieting, a rapid reduction in weight is dangerous. Record the weight of the dog by carrying it onto the bathroom scales and then subtracting your own weight. Establish the correct weight for your dog by contacting a breed society or your vet. Do not try to reduce the dog’s weight by more than half a kilogram per week.
The following routine should be successful:
Give the dog access to plenty of water.
Seek out a balanced, good quality commercial dog foot that your dog does not find very palatable. Remember, the more moisture it has the more palatable it is. Dry dog foods (unmoistened) may therefore be your answer.
Feed one meal per day of this food, and nothing else. If the dog continues to overeat on the dry food diet, keep changing brands until you find a less palatable food, c: keep the dog’s intake restricted.
Be sure the dog is not ‘eating out’ at the neighbor’s place. Increase the dog’s exercise—but slowly.
Keep the dog away from kitchens at meal-times and don’: give any ‘treats’.

Old Age

A dog’s lifespan varies with the breed and weight of the dog. Larger breeds live shorter lives, usually eight to twelve years. Smaller breeds live between fifteen and twenty years, although toy dogs are relatively short-lived. There 1- no accurate method for determining the age of a dog after six months, when it has acquired a full set of teeth.

Diet

In old age the number of calories required by the dog is reduced, but the preparation of the food becomes more important. The amount of calcium and phosphorus ma:. need to be increased to maintain the health of the dog’s bones. Protein is essential. Carbohydrates should be cooked to break down the starch granules to help digestion, while vitamin supplements should be increased. For the older dog you could prepare a diet of cooked cereal (oatmeal, wheat or rice), plus cooked meat, cottage cheese or boiled egg for added vitamins, but there is no need to change a dog to this diet unless it is not eating its norm., food. If the dog is aging, losing its appetite and becoming thinner, it is important to upgrade the appeal of the diet
This can be done by adding more fresh meat. If the dog is fed on commercial rations, convert the dog to a tinned food rather than a dried food. Fats should be supplied only in very small quantities. Good foods for old dogs include meat (especially white meat), fish, cottage cheese, poultry, cooked eggs and cooked cereals. These should be given as small, frequent meals, rather than one daily feed. In the same way, clean water should be offered frequently.

Geriatric Medicines

There are several medications available from your veterinary surgeon which will give the dog a lift in older age. Thee are particularly helpful for dogs suffering from geriatric conditions such as arthritis, rheumatism, and cardiac and kidney troubles.

Illness in Old Age

Large breeds in old age are often affected by arthritis and kidney troubles, more noticeably in cold climates. The dog may initially have difficulty rising, but after a few strides the gait becomes normal. In the early stages of illness the dog can be made more comfortable by keeping it in warm surroundings and possibly by the judicious use of analgesic or anti-inflammatory agents. Speak to your vet.
Many of the small toy breeds, such as Poodles and Cocker Spaniels, develop severe eye troubles in later life. Providing the dog is in its own familiar surroundings, it is usually able to lead a normal life. Care should be taken where the dog may be able to venture on to the road. Some eye conditions can be treated to return a little eyesight.
Heart conditions are particularly common in Poodles and Cocker Spaniels, and usually involve congestive heart failure. The signs exhibited by the dog are a cardiac cough brought on by excitement or exercise. Sometimes the dog may have an increased thirst and its abdomen appears to swell.
Signs of a kidney complaint are an increased thirst with frequent urination. The dog may also be lethargic.

Orchitis

Orchitis is an inflammatory condition of the testicles, usually caused by an injury, a kick or bruise; very occasionally it may be due to an infection by bacteria. The testicles are hot and painful, and the dog resents them being examined. If an abscess has formed, the dog’s temperature may be elevated to about 40°C. As a first aid measure, the testicles may be fomented with epsom salts and warm water at the rate of a tablespoon to 6 liters. It is best to have the condition treated by a veterinary surgeon—usually with long-acting antibiotics and an anti-inflammatory agent.

Osteochondrosis

Osteochondrosis is an arthritic condition due to an abnormality in bone development which causes a delay in conversion of cartilage to bone. Sites commonly affected are the shoulder, elbow, wrist and hock joint.
Osteochondrosis has a breed and familial tendency, and is more common in overweight males. Breeds affected include Labradors, Rottweilers, German Shepherds, St Bernards, Retrievers, Irish Wolfhounds and English Setters. Clinical signs include a low-grade progressive lameness at four to eight months. There is usually pain on manipulation of the elbow and there may be reduced flexion of the joint. Surgical treatment appears to be helpful and prevents further progression of the osteoarthritis.

Patella Luxation (Knee-cap Dislocation)

Most cases of luxated patella in small breeds are due to displacement of the knee-cap towards the inside. The problem affects many small breeds, generally appearing at four to eight months. Initially the lameness is intermittent, but eventually the patella dislocates permanently and the lameness becomes persistent. Surgical correction is best

Pain

Pain is one of the earliest signs of disease. The pet may become restless, move constantly, refuse to stay in one place, roam and whimper. It may have a frightened expression, resent handling or forced movement of painful’ parts.
Acute pain
Sharp pain is usually associated with fractures, ruptures or torsion twisting of internal organs.
Slowly developing pain
Gradually developing pain is associated with arthritis, tumours and inflammation, and here your observations may help the vet to make a diagnosis.
Although a dog may ‘nurse’ one part of the body, for example, a leg, it does not necessarily mean that the dog is in severe pain. Dogs can get along quite well on three legs, and sometimes even a minor complaint will make a dog carry its leg. However, it is always best to have a vet look at the dog to determine whether anything can be done for the injury or whether it is best left to rest. In some conditions, particularly after surgery, it is best that the dog does not use the affected part and therefore pain-killing drugs will not be used

Peritonitis

Peritonitis is an inflammatory and sometimes infectious disease problem of the lining of organs and the internal abdominal wall. It is usually caused by septic penetration from either the gastrointestinal tract or the outside abdominal wall.
The animal will resent palpation of the abdomen, arch its back, be reluctant to move, have a fever and be off its food. In all cases the dog should be taken to the vet

Pleurisy

Pleurisy is an inflammatory and infectious condition of the lining of the lungs and the wall of the thorax. The inflamed linings rub together during respiration and cause extreme pain. The problem requires veterinary attention.

Pneumonia

Pneumonia is an inflammation of the lungs caused by infection, injury or by migration of parasites, especially in young animals. Signs of pneumonia include shivering, high temperature, loss of appetite, difficulty in breathing and a grunting sound with each breath. It is often possible to hear a ‘grating’ sound if you listen closely to the chest. Veterinary attention is essential.

Prostatitis

The prostate gland is an accessory sexual gland in male dogs. When this becomes inflamed and enlarged, the condition is known as prostatitis. The dog, usually middle aged or older, has difficulty in passing motions; he squats for prolonged periods without success and often strains. He may be ‘off’ his food and tend to vomit.
The vet can confirm the diagnosis by rectal examination and institute treatment with injections of female hormones. Sometimes the enlargement is caused by a cancerous growth triggered off by aging male hormones. Large doses of the female hormone reverse the process in the majority of cases. To avoid recurrences it is advisable to have the dog castrated.

Pyometron

Inflammation of a bitch’s womb can result in a more serious disorder, pyometron, in which the womb is filled Pyometron Inflammation of a bitch’s womb can result in a more serious disorder, pyometron.

Respiration Rate Increase

An increase in the respiratory rate occurs during fever, increased environmental temperature, pneumonia, pleurisy, congestion of the lungs caused by ticks or chronic heart failure, space-occupying lesions such as tumours or diaphragmatic hernia, where some of the abdominal contents may be in the thorax.

Rickets

Rickets is a very rare disease, yet the term is frequently, but incorrectly, used to describe bone problems in larger breeds. Rickets is due to a deficiency of vitamin D and calcium and/or phosphorus. Provided an affected dog is given correct quantities of calcium and phosphorus, the condition can be somewhat alleviated.
It is rare in countries with plenty of sunlight, more prevalent in the northern hemisphere. Dogs with rickets develop abnormalities of their limbs, with the growth plates becoming enlarged and prominent. Affected dogs are inactive.

Salivation

Excessive salivation can be caused by poisons, fits, car sickness or medications taken orally which can stimulate saliva production.

Scooting

`Scooting’ is the term used to describe the action of a dog as it pulls itself along the ground in a sitting position to relieve an irritation in the anal area. The irritation is caused by tapeworm fragments, compacted anal glands or itchiness around the anal sphincter.
The contents of infected anal glands may be forced out by holding the dog’s tail in the left hand and, with the thumb and forefinger of the right hand held at eight o’clock and four o’clock positions over a pad of cotton-wool, squeezing inwards and upwards. Anal itchiness can be treated with calamine lotion, gentian violet, mercurochrome or triple dye.

Septicemia

Septicemia is a condition where bacteria entering the bloodstream, sometimes from the gut or another infected source in the body, cause a generalized infection of the body. Localization of the infection occurs in the joints, lungs, liver and kidneys. This is a very serious disease. The dog is obviously unwell, will have a fever, tends to lie in a cool place and will not eat or drink. Veterinary treatment must be given at once. Antibiotics are normally given intravenously initially to obtain a quick response to suppress the organisms circulating in the body.

Shivering

Shivering is an involuntary movement of the muscles. It can be caused by cold, fever, eclampsia (milk fever), the initial stages of poisoning or fright.

Shock

Shock is a failure of the circulatory system resulting from injury or illness. It is commonly seen after motor vehicle accidents where there is severe internal or external bleeding.
It is a serious condition from which the animal rarely recovers without intensive veterinary care. Symptoms are weakness, loss piratory difficulty or failure, an particularly of the gums and Keep the animal warm and cc Stop external bleeding.

Skin Disorders

Eczema appeared on the skin when the gland that is blocked.
Eczema is an inflammation of 3 types: acute moist eczema, dry eczema and scrotal ) that occurs in hot, humid weather. If it can, it will lick skin is broken and surface moist dermatitis. Examine for circular moist patch. Usually the area may house a scab, also called ‘hot spots’ spread. Eczema impacts breeds such as Golden Labradors, golden-colored Pugs, and occurs on sites where there is ample space at the base of the ears, and hindquarters. Treatment is to remove possible allergies. Eliminate any irritating infections. Ears or anal area should be washed with shampoo or soap several times on the affected areas. If the possibility of infection by staphylococcal germs exists, an astringent dye such as or triple dye can be applied. The infection can be very large and in these cases a veterinary examination is warranted. Anti-inflammatory injections, together with antibiotics, may be necessary. Allergic eczema is one of the most common skin problems in warm countries. The allergic reaction may be because of fleas, mites, environmental vegetation such as grasses, or diet. Allergies to plants are the most troublesome; they may flare ‘up every time the pet roams in the garden or only at certain times of the year. The types of vegetation most likely to cause allergies are wandering jew, paspalum, kikuyu and buffalo grass. Lesser irritations can result from allergies to straw, wool or nylon. Low-slung breeds such as Dachshunds, Corgis and Cocker Spaniels are more susceptible. An acute red rash will appear suddenly on the undercarriage, sometimes with angry pimples or larger infected areas. The dog scratches the affected area incessantly, setting up a self-inflicted cycle of injury. Treatment has two aims: to eliminate the allergic cause, and to break the self-inflicting cycle of events by the administration of antihistamine injections or tablets and the topical application of ointments or astringents.

Digital eczema This frequently occurs between the toes, where the dog licks because of some initiating cause, usually a grass allergy. The moisture and natural bacteria from the dog’s tongue set up an inflammatory process. Sometimes the inflammation may be transferred to the muzzle. Frequently the pads become swollen, sore and painful. Treatment is the same as for allergic eczema Dry eczema This is one of the most difficult skin conditions to diagnose. The causes are often obscure and it seems to be more common in pedigreed dogs. Sometimes a diet high in starch or carbohydrate can be at fault. Symptoms are persistent scratching producing a dry, scaly area. Veterinary examination will be required to eliminate other possible causes such as mange mites, fleas and lice. Treatment is usually by anti-inflammatory injections and ointments, plus any other remedial measures prescribed by the veterinarian.

Scrotal Eczema

This is a moist dermatitis of the skin of the scrotum, seen particularly in Old English Sheepdogs and Chows. The large pendulous testicles in these breeds cause the overlying skin to stretch to a point where circulation is impaired, allowing dermatitis to become established. Treatment is the same as for acute moist eczema. If this is not effective castration is recommended.

Fleas

Flea bite allergy is one of the main causes of skin problems in small animals. Fleas are wingless insects with legs adapted for jumping. They are not host-specific and go from one animal to another. Fleas are also the intermediate host for the flea tapeworm. The eggs are laid on the host animal from where they soon fall to the ground and infest the dog’s environment. Depending on weather conditions, the egg can hatch in a few days to a few weeks. Vibration is needed for hatching, which explains why houses that have been empty for some time often suffer massive flea problems when they are reoccupied. The adult female flea can lay up to 500 eggs during her lifetime, which is usually two years. All dogs can play host to fleas, but ungroomed animals, particularly long-haired dogs, provide the ideal environment for fleas to congregate. The most common site for fleas is the base of the tail and forward along the back line, but in severe cases fleas will be seen all over the body. Flea bite allergic dermatitis: Note the black spots which are flea feces.
Many animals become hypersensitive to the irritating bites. Symptoms of flea bite dermatitis include partial hair loss, red skin, flaky scaling and intense irritation, and in the later stages the hair becomes bristly around the tail area rather than soft. In severe cases the dog may be partially bald over the tail and back area with few hairs, and the skin becomes elephant-like. Large numbers of fleas and their droppings (little black spots) will be found if you `back-comb’ the hair over the tail area. The dog also has an unpleasant smell.
Fleas breed in dust, debris and bedding material. It is essential for control to treat both the host and its surroundings. Other hosts such as rats and mice should be eradicated. Dogs should be clipped prior to treatment. Flea powders containing carbaryl, amitraz or Malathion should be used—the powder should be brushed into the dog’s coat twice a week and any debris burnt. Alternatively, flea rinses may be used on a weekly basis. Flea collars are 95 per cent effective for periods of up to five months but they are rendered ineffective by immersion in water. Oral insecticides given in the form of tablets or liquids are also available—these are administered every third or fourth day.
Use only one of the above treatments at any one time. In general fleas spend only short periods on the host and therefore it is extremely important to treat the environment of the affected animals. In some cases it may be necessary to employ professional fumigators. Fleas can be controlled indoors by thorough vacuum cleaning to remove all debris and thorough spraying with an insecticide of all places offering shelter for adult fleas and larvae. This can be achieved by using a residual insecticidal spray around the skirting boards and under furniture. Fumigation may be carried out by placing flaked naphthalene on the floor at the rate of 2 kilograms per 10 square meters and leaving treated areas sealed for forty-eight hours.
Stables, kennels and the ground underneath the house should be treated for fleas. Treat all animals and eradicate rats and mice, clean up dust and burn surface litter. Sprinkle coarse salt on the soil and keep damp for two to three weeks. Spray lower walls and places that would provide shelter for fleas with insecticidal preparations.

Mites

Several species of flies will attack dogs, the most trouble- some being the stable-fly’ which is a particular nuisance during summer and autumn. It is a blood sucker, has a painful bite and is fond of ear tips. The usual signs are black, crusty sores on the tips and folds of the ear, with loss of hair over the affected areas. Fly-repellant ointments and lotions should be applied twice daily. Where possible keep your dog in a fly-proofed area during daylight hours. The ears should be cleaned and mercurochrome or triple dye applied to the ears twice daily
Once the initiating cause is eliminated the ears will heal. Long-haired dogs sometimes harbor maggots around the anal area or around infected wounds. Hair should be clipped away and the area cleaned. Visible maggots should be removed and the area dusted with insecticidal powder. Sertoli cell testicular tumor causing extensive hair loss in this terrier.

Hormonal Baldness

Hormonal baldness can occur in young pups at birth, often as the result of thyroid deficiency through lack of iodine in the mother’s food. Supplementation of the pup’s food with thyroid extract tablets, combined with small doses of iodine, is often effective.
The same condition can occur in females and is due to failure of the thyroid gland to produce sufficient thyroxin. The animal seems dull, the coat harsh, and bare patches appear under the throat, on the flanks and behind the thighs. Various tablets are available to rectify this problem. In whelping bitches a hormonal deficiency may cause the coat to fall out in patches especially around the rear. There is no itching. Hormonal injections may be used, but multi hormone tablets give a good result.
In middle-aged to old-aged male dogs the hair may fall out along the back and sides, and the dog may become attracted to others of its own sex. This may be due to a sertoli cell tumor of the testicle. Sometimes all of the hair will fall out. The best cure is castration. A completely new coat often grows in twelve to fourteen weeks. In Cushing’s disease, too much cortisone is produced by the body and the animal loses hair.

Lice

Lice are small wingless insects (1-3 millimeters long) which live as permanent dwellers on the skin of the dog. They spread from dog to dog mainly by contact and are very host-specific. The females glue their eggs to hair fiber. Lice can be found on all parts of the body but prefer areas where the skin is folded, so the pendent ears of Spaniels and similar breeds are often infested. Usual signs are itchiness, redness of the skin, hair loss and trauma caused by the dog scratching. Biting lice are most common in puppies and in dogs that cannot groom themselves, while sucking lice are more prevalent in long-haired dogs.
Eradication of lice is easy because the complete life cycle is spent on the host. In a long-haired breed, clip the dog’s coat back to the skin all over and wash the dog once a week with an insecticidal rinse, such as Malathion, Seven or Diazinon, -for four weeks.
Lick granuloma always occurs on the limbs in a convenient position for licking.

Lick granuloma

This condition is brought on by the dog constantly licking a particular part of the body and causing ulceration. The most common sites are the forelegs and the outside of the hock region of the hind legs. These are the areas which can be licked at leisure when the dog is lying down. The irritation can start from a small scratch or abrasion. Certain breeds such as Labradors, Boxers, Great Danes and Fox Terriers are particularly susceptible to this condition. As licking starts and perpetuates the problem, the first step is to prevent the dog licking the area. This can be done by bandaging, or by using an Elizabethan collar or a bucket over the dog’s head. Treatment includes corticosteroid ointments, corticosteroid injections into the lesion, and in some cases cryotherapy, where the skin over the affected area is deep frozen for several minutes. Sometimes surgical excision or radiation of the lesion is successful. Frequently these conditions are the result of boredom.

Lumps under the Skin

All lumps under the skin should be checked by a vet, particularly if they are increasing in size. Sometimes they are due to tumor formation but in many cases a fatty lump may appear in an obese dog. The latter are usually not harmful and in some cases can even fluctuate in size.

Mites

These are found on or just below the skin surface. The most common are demodectic mange mites and sarcoptic mange mites (or scabies).
Demodectic mange mites These are microscopic mites which complete their life cycle deep in the sweat glands and hair follicles of the skin. Demodectic mange usually occurs in dogs under a year old, usually in short-haired breeds. Infection is by direct contact, so a bitch can transfer the mites to her pups during suckling. The most common lesion occurs around the eyes. The dog loses hair around the eyelids giving a bespectacled appearance. Other lesions can occur around the muzzle and back of the legs. There are two forms of demodectic mange: squamous, and pustular.
In the squamous form the hair falls out in patches and dry lesions appear which become inflamed and swollen. These patches appear as local areas around the eyes, muzzle folds, elbows, feet and neck. There is little evidence of irritation and the condition may remain static for several years. However, it may become generalized, with widespread hair loss accompanied by thickening of the skin. The pustular form of demodectic mange results from a secondary bacterial infection. The skin becomes thickened, wrinkled and inflamed, and is obviously itchy. Demodectic mange is hard to treat, and always require veterinary attention. You should first clip the dog. cleanse its skin with an agent such as Seleen, gene: -a available from pet shops, chemists and vets. Treatment is. complicated; always take the advice of your vet. Sarcoptic mange (scabies).
Scabies: Note the flaking skin, and redness due to in lesions may not be sharply defined, and the coat has a moth-eaten appearance. There is also a dry form of scabies which occurs in young pups. Instead of the usual irritation accompanied by pustule formation, the skin becomes covered with large bran-like scales and the hair may lift off in large tufts. Although the diagnosis of the disease is difficult, treatment is quite simple. Insecticidal treatment with washes is highly effective. Scabies infection has become less common in urban areas as insecticides are in general use.

Ringworm

Ringworm is fairly common in young puppies. The term `ringworm’ is a misnomer in that the infecting organism is not a worm, but one of four types of fungus. The fungi live either on the skin surface or in the hairs of the affected area, and spread rapidly between puppies, particularly where there is poor feeding or overcrowding. The first signs of ringworm are scratching and biting of the skin. Examination reveals a round patch of crusty skin with the hairs falling out. Laboratory analysis of skin scrapings confirms the diagnosis. Because ringworm spreads rapidly, infected dogs should be quarantined from others. Children should be forbidden to handle the pet since all forms of dog ringworm can infect humans. The best treatment is to use anti-fungal tablets and washes ointments alone are inadequate because the fungus will spread through the hair.

Urticaria

Urticaria is a very common allergic condition. It affects pups and adult dogs of all ages and is usually the result of a bee or wasp sting. Fly bites, chemical toxins from some plants, or food preservatives can also cause the problem. The dog’s head and the skin of the eyelids bulge and swell, making the dog look ‘old’. Sometimes patches of skin become covered in lumps. In severe cases the dog has difficulty in breathing. The dog should be taken to the vet for an injection of antihistamine. Some relief at home is given by the application of household ammonia products.

Warts

Warts are extremely common in dogs. In young animals they appear around the mouth and lips. In old dogs they can grow anywhere. Because warts are caused by a virus, they are usually self-limiting and finally fall off. Sometimes warts may cause mechanical interference in some parts of the body and may bleed. In these cases surgery is the answer.

Snake Bite

Whether the dog survives a snake bite depends on the type of snake and the amount of venom the snake was able to inject into the animal. The dog’s tough skin and hair make A benign skin tumor, a common problem on older dogs. it difficult for the snake’s fangs to penetrate, particularly if the dog is moving around. Symptoms are trembling, vomiting, salivation, diarrhea, weakness in the back legs, dilated pupils, slow or absent light reflexes of the pupils, respiratory distress, bloody urine, continuous bleeding from the wound where the snake has bitten and a flaccid paralysis progressing to coma or to respiratory failure. Reaction to the bite can be sudden. Sometimes the animal will collapse soon after being bitten, recover almost completely within half-an-hour, then begin to show other symptoms.
In other cases the symptoms may not develop for some time. The key signs are weakness or paralysis in the back legs and dilated pupils. Blood takes a long time to clot. Sometimes snake bite may be confused with tick bite, poisoning by organophosphorus insecticides, or an acute infectious disease such as canine hepatitis or leptospirosis. In treating snake bite it is helpful to know the type of snake responsible so that the correct antivenin can be administered, but don’t put your own life at risk. The principles of treatment are:
Neutralize the venom with antivenin.
Treat locally: wash the wound and apply a firm wide bandage if the bite is on a limb, but do not cut the site of the bite. Keep the dog calm and take it to the vet as soon as possible.
Provide general supportive measures for shock, paralysis and loss of blood. Keep the dog warm on the way to the veterinarian.

Snail Bait

Two common generic compounds are carbamate and metaldehyde. Symptoms of poisoning are lack of co A poison bait — bread laced with blue snail bait. ordination, anxiety and muscle tremors which sometimes become severe muscle spasms. These symptoms are similar to strychnine poisoning but spasms are not accentuated by auditory or physical stimulation.

Spider bite

Spider bites should be treated in the same way as snake bites. The symptoms can be similar.

Staggering

Staggering can be due to a number of different causes: concussion or trauma caused by motor vehicle accident; disc lesion or disc protrusion, which may affect the nerves to the back legs; severe constipation; spondylosis, which usually occurs in the aged dog and particularly in large breeds, it is caused by calcified joints in the back impinging on the nerves to the back legs; tick paralysis; tranquilization from drugs; or weakness caused by other disease.

Straining

Straining can be due to: constipation; blocked anal glands; diverticulum; fecal matting in long-haired dogs; prostatitis; or urinary blockage

Strychnine

Some rat poisons and some of the older patent medicines contain this substance, although strychnine poisoning in urban areas is usually the work of a dog hater. When this happens, several dogs in one area are usually poisoned at the same time.
This form of poisoning should be suspected when a mature, healthy dog suffers from shortness of breath, blue mucous membranes, stiffness of the limbs and throwing back of the head. The animal can be stimulated into a fit by sudden loud noises near the ears or by slapping the body. Spasms increase in intensity until respiratory paralysis and death occur. Take the dog immediately to a vet; this is an emergency.

Sunburn

This is rarely seen in dogs.

Tail Injuries

Injuries to the tip of the tail are usually caused by a young dog chasing its tail and biting it, or a dog catching its tail in a door. The happy dog wags its tail, bumping it on tables, doorposts and other objects, thus continually reopening the wound and stopping healing. Bandage the tail with adhesive bandage until it heals or, if this fails, take the dog to the vet to have the tail cauterized.

Tail Kinks

This usually occurs in puppies as the result of a dislocated joint in the tail. The joint can be reset and splinted under anesthetic, but if left untreated will cause the dog no problem. The only reason for treating a kinked tail is cosmetic

Tail Limp

Sometimes a dog that normally carries its tail elevated will have a limp tail. This can be because of bruising or fractures at the base of the tail, or infected anal glands.

Ticks

There are several species of ticks; but the most important to dog owners is the paralysis tick, which lives on warm-blooded fauna such as bandicoots, possums and other scrub-dwelling animals. Domestic animals and humans are accidental hosts, dogs and cats being the most susceptible.
A fully engorged female can produce a single batch of between 2000 to 3000 eggs within seven to fourteen days of falling from a host. After hatching, the larvae become active within seven days and attach to a host. At this stage they are very small. After four to six days they drop off and go into a second growth stage and finally into adulthood. Infestations can occur at any time of the year if conditions are suitable, but usually they are confined to the spring and Life cycle of the tick.
Spastic behavior of a dog affected by tick poisoning. summer. The tick population in any year is usually governed by the previous year’s rainfall and temperature variations. The main sign of a dog suffering from tick bite is paralysis, beginning at the hind-legs, moving to the front legs and then to the respiratory system.
Progressive signs to be watched for are: the dog is reluctant to walk up a flight of stairs or jump into a car; the dog may have a slight wobbliness or weakness in the hind-legs; vomiting; depression; pupil dilation; loss of control of the hind-legs, with partial loss of foreleg co-ordination; salivation; respiration becomes labored and more frequent; as paralysis becomes advanced, barking ceases; increased blood pressure in conjunction with decreasing and irregular heartbeat.
The cause of these reactions is not yet fully understood, as the chemical structure of the toxin has not yet been identified, but it is strong enough to paralyze cats, calves, sheep, foals and even humans. The interval between the attachment of the tick and the onset of weakness in the hindquarters is up to four days, although in some cases clinical signs may not be seen until all the ticks have engorged and dropped off. If partly engorged ticks are removed, paralysis may still occur one or two days later, depending on the amount of toxin that has already been injured. In these cases the attachment site is seen as a raised crater-like swelling.
Removal of engorged ticks from an otherwise normal dog does not mean that the dog is out of danger. Enough toxin may already have been injected into the dog to cause its death. Tick toxin is as dangerous as snake bite. A dog bitten by a paralysis tick can die if not taken to a vet for full assessment immediately. Even if a tick is removed as soon as the first symptoms are noticed, the dog has only a 50 per cent chance of recovery without further treatment. The toxin can take up to two days to have its full effect. The longer the delay between the appearance of the symptoms and the giving of anti-toxin injections, the greater the risk to the dog’s life. Therefore, take the dog to the vet for antitoxin immediately.
Ticks can be found on any part of the body, but 80 per cent are found between the nose and the shoulders. Areas such as the toes, the external ear canal and inside the anus and mouth should be thoroughly searched. Once the tick has been found, place a pair of tweezers as close to the skin as possible and gently pull the tick out. If the mouth parts are left in the skin, do not worry; they will fester out. Another tick cannot grow from them. Do not place methylated spirits on the tick or cut the tick’s body, as these methods allow a very angry tick to continue to inject toxin in its saliva into the dog’s body. When searching for ticks always remove collars or leads. Dogs in tick danger areas may need to be clipped all over every summer and an anti-tick wash applied weekly. Dogs affected by ticks should be bathed in an insecticidal wash to help kill any ticks. But don’t rely on this method—hand searching is the only effective means.
To control tick infestation certain steps should be taken regularly to protect your pet.
Bathe the dog weekly in an anti-tick wash and use a flea collar. These two methods will help reduce tick infestation but they are not foolproof.
Search your dog every day, particularly around the head and shoulders, remembering to remove collars and leads before you start.
Eliminate any thick undergrowth from around your home and discourage fauna such as possums and bandicoots which are major intermediate hosts for the tick.

Tonsillitis

Tonsillitis occurs most frequently in toy breeds such as Poodles and Maltese Terriers. The symptoms are lethargy, fever, loss of appetite and a slight cough. The condition can be alleviated by antibiotics, but repeated bouts will require removal of the tonsil tissue by surgery. Once the tonsils have been removed in dogs where they are causing a problem, the difference is remarkable.

Toxemia

Toxemia is any condition in which the blood contains toxic products. These can be produced by the body cells or caused by the growth of organisms. The clinical signs of toxemia vary widely and depend on the type of toxin involved.
Generally, the dog will be lethargic, off its food, and the mucous membranes of the eyes and gums may be red rather than pink.
Toxic conditions are usually dangerous and any dog suspected of having toxemia should be given urgent veterinary attention.
Tumors are the result of an abnormal development of cells within the body, whose growth does not conform with the laws of tissue differentiation. Tumors may be classified as benign or malignant. Benign tumors usually grow slowly and are restricted to the point where they first develop. They may cause damage to surrounding tissues but usually don’t invade the neighboring areas. Surgical removal is usually satisfactory. Malignant tumors usually grow rapidly and spread to neighboring tissues; they can develop in other parts of the body after being carried by the circulation. Surgical removal of malignant tumors rarely completely removes the cancerous development.
Sometimes malignant tumors, if near the surface of the the skin. Some tumors respond to radiation therapy.
others to drugs. Most require surgical removal. Veterinary treatment is essential and should be started as early as possible. There is a tendency on the part of owners to delay the first veterinary consultation as they are afraid of being told that the condition is incurable.

Tumors of the Testes

Tumors of the testes are not uncommon, though as a rule only one testicle is involved. The testicle is hard and solid, yet not painful. It usually occurs in older dogs and is much more frequent in undescended testicles. The only effective treatment is castration.

Undescended Testicles

Undescended testicles are fairly common, particularly in the toy breeds. An owner should not worry about this condition until the dog is nine months old. Then the testicles become prone to tumor formation and should be removed.
This condition is hereditary.

Unproductive

As;nom uterine inertia, this condition is generally due to an obstruction by a twisted or deformed pup. The bitch strains repeatedly and strongly, but is unproductive. Again, a caesarian section is necessary.

Urine disorders

The urine is often a good indication of the condition of the animal. Normal urine is a light clear yellow.
Dark or bloody urine can indicate infection of the bladder (cystitis).
Bladder stones can cut the inside of the bladder wall, releasing blood into the urine. Cloudy urine means there is an abnormality.
Increased frequency is usually accompanied by thirst. The causes include diabetes, diarrhea, fever, heart disease, and kidney disease. If an animal is showing signs of urinary disease, a 30-milliliter specimen should be collected in a clean vessel for veterinary inspection. This is best done by locking the dog up overnight and walking it on a lead the next morning with container at the ready. Take the sample to the vet within four hours.
Incontinence usually occurs in desexed females. They unconsciously urinate while lying down. This can be because of a bladder infection or a hormone deficiency.

Urinary Tract Blockage

Blockage should be suspected when the dog strains to urinate but passes only a few drops. Sometimes the urine is discolored. Usually the cause is stones in the bladder. In the male dog these may enter the urethra and pass through to block the urethral tract in the penis. The condition is extremely painful and the dog should be taken to the vet.

Uterine Inertia

The bitch fails to strain after breaking water, and generally looks uncomfortable. After a few hours she passes a blackish-green discharge, but no pups. This is a sign that the afterbirths are separating and she should be taken to a vet immediately. Contractions of the uterus may be stimulated by injections, but if this doesn’t work, a caesarian section is necessary to save both pups and bitch.

Vomiting

The history of the vomiting attack is important to your vet when making a diagnosis and treating the animal. Is the vomiting related to eating? How many times a day does the dog vomit? Is the vomited food digested or not? What color is the vomited matter? If possible, take a sample of the vomit to the vet when you take your dog.
Apparently healthy dogs vomit from time to time. If this happens once every fourth or fifth day and the dog appears completely normal in every other way, there is no need for concern. Dogs will sometimes eat grass for medicinal purposes and then vomit. This may be the dog’s method of internal cleansing.
Diseases such as distemper, hepatitis, pyometra, septicemia, or kidney disease can also car vomiting.

Drugs—when a dog commences to vomit while on dram the drugs should be suspected immediately. Digitalis (chew tablets), for example, given to excess cause vomiting. The tablets for a day and then commence with half recommended dosage. To prevent the build-up of the dandruff in the dog’s system, only give the tablets six days a week. Certain antibiotics and morphine can cause vomiting. As with any such case it is always best to consult your veterinarian about the problem.

Dry retching or coughing as if the dog has a bone – in its throat is typical of the virus ‘kennel cough’. Indigestion, overeating, bad food (particularly if a dog likely to dig up old bones or meat) and poison. Nervous problems such as car or motion sickness , lesions within the brain.

Ticks – One of the initial signs of tick poisoning is vomiting and salivation.

Weight Changes

Small dogs can be weighed on ordinary household. kitchen scales. Put a towel on the scales first. Larger dogs can be weighed on bathroom scales. The simplest method is to carry the dog on to the scales am:: then subtract your own weight.

Wobbler Syndrome

Wobbler syndrome is associated with an abnormality of the spine in conjunction with compression of the spinal cord. It is a problem in Bassets, Dobermans and Great Danes. The breed incidence suggests that the problem May be inherited.
The dogs usually have incoordination of the hind limbs. They may knuckle the foot and fall over when turning sharply. All four limbs may be affected. Most cases occur at five to nine years of age. Treatment is not particularly successful, although various methods have been tried.

Abdominal Distention

Causes of abdominal distention are tumors, fluid accumulation, fatness and pregnancy.

Abscess

Abscess is an accumulation of pus usually under the attack of other cats. They are usually the result of a cat bite some time four days earlier. The cat becomes listless and has lesser appetite while the abscess is building up. The locations are around the head, on the back and the base of the tail. If the abscess has burst, leaving irrigate it two or three times a day with 50 per cent peroxide and 50 per cent water for three to four days. Keep the wound hole open, using a cotton bud, until it heals from the inside out. After three days irrigate with clean water three times daily. If the abscess has not burst, the cat should be taken to the vet so that the abscess can be lanced. If the cat does not regain its appetite within twenty-four hours, visit the vet for antibiotic shots.

Allergies

Cats can be allergic to certain foods, plants and other substances. An allergy may reveal itself in several ways: it can be accompanied by dermatitis, swelling of the local area, itchiness or sores. Tracing the cause of the allergy is frequently very difficult and is a job for your veterinary surgeon. Cats do not suffer from acute allergic reactions as do dogs. Cats, unlike dogs, very commonly cause an allergic reaction in humans.

Anaemia

Anaemia is detected by pale mucous membranes of the mouth or the eyes. It can be caused by feline infectious anaemia (a blood parasite), feline infectious peritonitis (a virus), internal parasites (such as coccidiosis, roundworms, hookworms and tapeworms), dosing with antibiotics, chronic liver disease, poor nutrition and as an associated problem with many debilitating diseases. The exact cause of the anaemia should be determined by a veterinarian and appropriate treatment commenced. Supplementation of the diet with liver and B-complex vitamin drops helps.

Appetite, Decreased

Decreased appetite has a number of causes. The cat may walk up to the food and attempt to eat, but cease, indicating that a condition of the mouth is causing the problem, such as ulcers, sore gums, or a cracked or decayed tooth. A fussy eater may be refusing a change of diet. If the cat is apparently well but misses one or two meals, do not worry particularly. The cat may be eating at a neighbor’s place, it may be full of lizards, birds or other small life, or you may be overfeeding it. If the decreased appetite is accompanied by lethargy, the cat may have a fever and be incubating one of the infectious diseases or an abscess. If its temperature is normal but the animal is lethargic, then constipation, ticks or feline infectious anaemia should be considered. It can be seen from the range of illnesses mentioned—and these are only some—that a decreased appetite is only a symptom indicating the cat is unwell.

Appetite, increased

Increased appetite can be caused by an unbalanced diet, malabsorption syndrome, chronic pancreatitis, sugar diabetes, pregnancy, lactation, an extreme worm burden, nervous diarrhea, anxiety, chronic bleeding, a cold environment, kidney disease or hormonal problems.

Artificial Respiration

When artificial respiration is necessary, place the cat on its side in the fresh air with the four legs stretched out. With a handkerchief, pull out the animal’s tongue and then with your hands on its rib-cage press down gently, release and wait. Repeat this sequence rhythmically at about fifteen beats per minute. When the cat revives, treat for shock and take it to a vet.

Bacterial Skin Infections

Bacterial skin infections at leprosy affects mainly the head and lips, but the contraction may be found anywhere on the body. It occurs as a painless, usually multiple, discrete ulcerated lumps varying from 1 to 3.5 centimeters in diameter and extending from the surface of the skin to the subcutaneous layer. Surgical excision is best. M. Lepraemurium (cat leprosy) indicated by an early lesion on the cat’s neck. Feline acne occurs on the chin and margins of the lips. There is hair loss, and pustules and small cysts are present. In severe cases there is swelling of the entire chin and pus on the surface. The cause is the cat’s failure to clean the chin, particularly a cat with excessively greasy skin. Dirt and surface fats accumulate, leading to secondary bacterial skin infections. Clean the area daily with mild soap and water or with alcohol. If there is an infection, rub in an antibiotic cream.
Paronychia is a condition where the ends of the toes are tender and inflamed, and the paws appear malformed. The cat has difficulty extending the claws because of swelling, A severe case of feline acne on the cat’s chin. Inflammation of the skin-nail margin indicates paronychia; eventually the whole toe will be tender and inflamed. and a sticky, pussy material is visible in the claw fold. The condition is usually chronic. The cause is secondary bacterial invasion following damage to the claw fold. Extend the claws and remove the pussy material with 50 per cent water/50 per cent hydrogen peroxide solution and a cotton bud. Then apply 2 per cent gentian violet solution well into the skin nail fold. Antibiotics are also very effective. In chronic cases the nail may have to be removed under general anesthetic to provide good drainage. The infected nail is usually loose and comes away easily. In most cases it grows back after the infection has cleared up.
Pyogenic dermatitis occurs at the base of the tail, on the head and the ears, on skin over bony prominences and between the toes. In superficial cases, this condition appears as small, crusty sores. Under the crust is an inflamed sticky base. Deep cases appear as single or multiple raised acute and inflamed red or reddish-blue pustules, varying in size from 1 to 5 centimeters. They may have two or more openings, discharging a thick yellow pus. The cause is contaminated wounds resulting from fighting and other types of trauma. The sharp canine teeth of the cat are responsible for most sores, particularly at the tail. Clip the hair around the sore. Some wounds may need to be lanced. The cat should be put on antibiotics. Irrigate the wounds three times daily with 50 per cent hydrogen peroxide and water for four days, then with dear water for three days.

Behavioral Problems

Cats do not seem to develop as many neuroses from urban life as dogs do, possibly because they can escape over the back fence and extend their territory. Behavioral abnormalities are confined to ‘spraying’ in the male cat and to aggressiveness. These traits are almost eliminated if the cat is desexed. When a torn starts spraying in the house he usually has a good reason (for a cat); maybe a new cat in the neighborhood has become dominant over him, or there is a new pet or a new baby in the household. Your cat is trying to re-establish his territory by marking it with urine. Control over spraying and aggressiveness can be helped by the administration of progesterone or by desexing. Discuss this with your veterinary surgeon.

Bites

The wounds on a cat are usually from another cat. Tears and rips usually indicate involvement of a possum or a dog. If the wound is gaping and has rough the skin, it is best to seek veterinary attention for therapy and stitches. Open wounds should be treated three times daily with a 50 per cent peroxide and a solution for four days. After this period, irrigation and lean water is satisfactory. Keep the wound open with buds so that it heals from the inside out. To prevent cat fighting, feed it in the evening and lock it indoors morning. This will reduce the incidence of fighting because most aggressiveness occurs at night. If the wound is infected, and your cat is off its food, veterinary attention should be sought for the administration of antibiotic.

Bleeding

severe bleeding occurs on an extremity, a tourniquet can be applied between the laceration and the trunk of the body. The tourniquet must be released for several seconds to three or four minutes. If bleeding occurs f on the body, apply a pressure bandage. Take the cat nearest veterinary surgeon in either case. If it is hard to bandage the area, simply use a clean handkerchief and apply pressure over the bleeding point.

Bronchitis

There are the two main branches in the trachea windpipe. They extend into each lung where they break further to form the lung tissue. Bronchitis is simply an inflammation of the mucous lining of these tubes. It can be caused by allergies, bacteria, dust, parasites. The usual symptoms are coughing and distressed breathing. There may also be a temperature rise. Treatment depends on diagnosing the cause. A vet usually prescribe antibiotics and antihistamines to control the problem
Cats can be severely burned by lightning (if up a tree during a storm), electric shock, chemicals, open flames or hot ashes. Watch open fire-places—cats will often crawl in there for the warmth and get burned by hidden embers. Many cats are scalded by hot liquids in busy kitchens. If the cat has first-degree bums, where the skin is red or blistered or the hair is singed in a localized area immerse the cat immediately in cold water, then trim away the hair and apply a thick grease such as petroleum jelly, butter, lard or commercial burn ointment. Do not apply antiseptic. Wet tea leaves (which contain tannic acid) will help reduce pain and loss of fluid; however, they should not be used on large burns or scalds, as too much tannic acid is toxic to cell tissue. In cases of more severe burns, where the hair is burnt off and the skin charred or black, it is imperative to get the animal to a vet.
Cats and Birds

It is natural for a cat to be a hunter, even though it may have access to plenty of food. In the peripheral areas of cities, where there are reserves and national parks, domestic cats frequently venture for a day’s hunting. Unfortunately there are practical limitations in trying to stamp out this kind of activity. Cats have also fallen into disfavor with the increasing number of city and suburban bird lovers who maintain feeding trays. Bells on a cat’s collar may work sometimes, although it is quite possible for cats equipped with this alarm system to stalk so quietly that the bells don’t ring until the bird is well and truly caught. If you intend feeding birds, try to place a cat guard (or other animal guard) around the feeding area. But even then tragedies will occur—the bird lands on the ground to pick up a fallen seed and the cat will spring out from a hiding place. A recent survey of cats’ stomach contents in urban areas indicated that much of the wild fauna consisted of small lizards rather than birds.

Cats and Dogs

If there are cat-hating dogs in the neighborhood you will have to protect your cat. Most cats are quicker than dogs; where there is a one-to-one challenge, the cat can usually look after itself. When there is more than one dog, the cat can sometimes be in trouble, particularly if it is cornered. The cat usually adopts a defensive role and the dog at worst ends up with a scratched nose or a punctured eye. In the worst situations a cat can be torn apart and killed. Cats and dogs of the one family nearly always get along very well. This is particularly the case if one or the other has been introduced as a young animal. The older animal mothers the other one. It is a common sight to see cats and dogs of the same family playing with each other in the garden. If you have no fences or your own dog is a problem with your cat, the best idea is to have accessible high areas in the garden where your cat can escape. Alternatively, have a small cat door which only allows the cat through.

Cats and Fish

Goldfish swimming in a neighbor’s garden pool are another source of interest for your cat. This may provoke some ‘communication’ between you and your neighbor. Although there is no law to stop a cat from going fishing, your neighbor may take steps to stop your cat from roaming near the goldfish pond. The simplest method is to cover the pond with a wire grill.

Coccidiosis

A microscopic organism, coccidiosis lives and multiplies in the cells of the intestinal tract. It affects mainly young animals and is particularly prevalent where overcrowding exists, such as in breeding establishments or pet shops. It causes diarrhea, lethargy, weight loss and rough coat. The diagnosis can be made by examining feces under a microscope. The disease must be specifically treated; ordinary anti-diarrhea treatments have only a temporary effect.

Congenital Defects

Unlike the dog, the cat has very few congenital defects.

Constipation

The signs of constipation are straining, listlessness and decreased appetite. In serious and chronic cases, vomiting may also occur. One of the commonest causes is an all-meat diet and consequent nutritional secondary parathyroidism (N.S.H.) which results in the narrowing the pelvic outlet, in turn causing constriction of the boy,. Fecal build-up forward of this constriction results in tension of the intestine. Even though fecal matter may escape from this distended area initially, the muscle in the intestinal walls stretch so that the bowel is permanently ballooned. The right type of diet is important in resolving the condition. Dried food or food high in calcium content, such bone, tends to aggravate the problem. Treatment is by using fecal softeners such as Dilax or Coloxyl tablets combine: with paraffin oil at the rate of one teaspoon twice a day. In addition, commercial enemas or warm, soapy water can be used to evacuate the lower bowel. In cases where conservative treatment is unsuccessful, surgery can be performed to remove the fecal contents from the intestine and to widen the pelvic outlet. Twice-weekly application: of oil, fecal softeners and diets with high moisture, such as tinned foods, will help to prevent the condition. Live:- milk and kidneys tend to have a laxative effect in cats. The amount of medication or the degree of change of diet governed by the relevant activity of the bowel.

Coughing

A persistent cough is an indication that something is wrong with the cat and it should not be ignored. Coughing can be due to irritation of the throat, the windpipe or the lungs. It can be caused by: lungworms, which are caught when the cat eats lizard, grasshoppers or cockroaches: migrating roundworms ; congestion caused by cat flu : pneumonia; bronchitis; tight collars; foreign bodies in the windpipe. Hair-balls cause regurgitation rather than a cough. If coughing is persistent, the cat should be taken to the veterinary surgeon for diagnosis, as home remedies to suppress the cough without curing the problem.

Cystitis (Inflammation of the Bladder)

The first indication of cystitis is often that the cat is becoming dirty about the house—urinating in places other than its sanitary tray. There is increased frequency of urination. with small quantities being passed. Frequently the urine is bloodstained and contains small whitish crystals, and the cat may strain. The area around the genitals tends to become contaminated with urine and has an ammonia odor. Cats with this condition remain bright, however, and continue to eat in the majority of cases. Sometimes there is increased thirst and occasionally an attack may be ushered by fever and vomiting. The condition is best treated with specific antibiotics which are excreted in high concentration in the urine. If the patient’s urine is alkaline the use of acidifiers is recommended. The alkalinity can be determined in the laboratory. The general treatment of cystitis includes increasing the water intake by the administration of common salt either in the food or in the drinking water. Eliminate dry cat foods from the diet, as these tend to decrease overall water intake, resulting in more concentration of the urine. Although dry foods (10 per cent water) tend to increase the thirst of the cat more than tinned foods (80 per cent water), the overall water intake on dry foods is less than with tinned food because of the different percentages of water in the food.

Dandruff

When dandruff occurs it is most obvious along the back line of the cat. If the hair in the affected area is sparse and the remaining hairs are bristle-like, the dandruff may due to a hormonal deficiency. If the hair coat is normal glossy, the dandruff may be due to a diet deficient in essential fatty acids. These can be replaced by the additional of fat to the diet or by adding butter or margarine at rate of one teaspoonful per day to the cat’s diet.

Depression

Depression is a symptom of many diseases and of ma: problems. It may be caused by a fever, incorrect diet (particularly vitamin B-group deficiency), any disease requiring incubation of viral diseases such as cat flu, tooth decay or fight wounds. It may also be caused constipation or a blocked bladder. Cats can also become messed by a change in environment—for example, being n a cattery, being banned from the house for some the introduction of a new animal to the household.
These are some of the common conditions causing depression in the cat, but there are many others. Unless the reason for the depression is obvious, it is best to consult a veterinary surgeon

Diarrhea

Diarrhea occurs when something irritates the gut and stomachs it push the food through the intestines at such a fast that water and nutrients are not able to be resorbed in large bowel. This can lead to dehydration, loss of alit and the loss of important electrolytes. Diarrhea must always be controlled as quickly as possible. Diarrhea can be caused by: bacteria; coccidiosis; diet; viruses, such as feline enteritis; worms, especially roundworm infestations in young kittens.
Some tinned foods might disagree with your cat and cause diarrhea. Milk has a component called lactose rich requires the presence of an enzyme called lactase to break down (digest) the lactose. Cats deficient in the enzyme have a persistent diarrhea when fed cow’s milk. Take the cat off milk, but ensure that you replace the calcium content with calcium carbonate in the food at the rate of half a teaspoon per 100 grams of red meat. If the cat is a commercial diet this is unnecessary. Once the cat’s stools are back to normal, cow’s milk may be restarted at e rate of 50 per cent concentration with water, or a commercially prepared lactose-free milk which may obtained from a pharmacy.
If the diarrhea is smelly or has blood in it, veterinary attention should be sought immediately. If the cat appears normal but the stools are liquid, the diarrhea should be controlled by starchy foods, boiled milk, cooked rice, cottage cheese. The administration of half the child’s usage of commonly used anti-diarrhea treatments can be i for twenty-four hours. If the diarrhea persists, seek veterinary attention.

Drinking, Decreased

Some cats, particularly Siamese, do not drink milk. Others do not seem to find it necessary to drink fluids at all. In some cases these cats get their water from other sources such as garden taps or baths. Cats have the facility to concentrate their urine very highly and so long as they are on a moist diet which contains 70 per cent water (such as tinned commercial meat), their fluid requirement is quite minimal. Where the cat is transferred to a dry food diet it is important to teach the cat to drink. This may be done by moistening the food or adding a small amount of salt to it.
Decreased fluid intake in the unwell animal is a real problem. The average adult cat weighs about 4 kilograms. Small body weights dehydrate very quickly, and it is important in any illness to keep the cat’s body fluid up from the first day. This can be done by orally feeding the cat glucose and water, at the rate of one tablespoon of glucose per 600 milliliters of water; the cat should receive about 40 milliliters (4 tablespoons) of this fluid orally per day, in four or five doses. If the cat refuses to drink, it will become dehydrated. Dehydration is evidenced by the skin failing to return when lifted from the body. Lift the skin at the scruff of the cat’s neck; it should return by the count of three. The earlier dehydration is detected, the less damage will be done. If the cat continues to refuse to take fluids orally, it should be taken to a veterinary surgeon for intravenous administration of fluid.

Drinking, Increased

Increased drinking can be caused by dried food diets, fever, kidney disease, vomiting, diarrhea, pyometron or diabetes

Drowning

Although most cats dislike water, they can swim for a short while before becoming exhausted and drowning. After rescuing your cat from the water, hold it by the back legs, upside down, allowing the water to drain out.
Swing the cat around your head, three times, holding by the back legs, centrifugally forcing out excess water. Then place the cat on its side and apply artificial respiration. When it revives treat for shock and take it to the vet.

Dry Coat

A dry coat can be due to any debilitating condition. It can also be due to worms or diet deficiencies, especially essential fatty acids which can be supplied in the form of additional butter or margarine or by increasing the fatty content of the food. Vitamin A deficiencies can be rectified by adding liver to the diet, but the liver should not constitute more than 10-15 per cent of the diet. Hormonal deficiencies can lead to dry coat.

Dystoda

This is the term to describe difficulty in giving birth. Abnormal births are usually caused by small openings in the pelvis, the result of healed fractures from motor vehicle accidents or spontaneous fractures and deformities resulting from calcium deficiencies; this is more common in Siamese cats.
All queens suffering from pelvic deformities should be spayed at the earliest opportunity. Some birth difficulties result from abnormal presentation of the fetus sideways, oversized kittens or fetal monstrosities. Caesarian section in the cat is very rarely necessary. However, where the queen has been Clear the mouth and nostrils of straining without result for more than one hour, a veterinary surgeon should membranes but leave the cord be contacted.

Ear Disorders

Ear disorders in cats are not as prevalent as in dogs because they have short-pricked ears with little hair. This allows good air circulation to keep the ear dry.

Cancer of the Ear

This occurs in white cats or white-eared cats.

Deafness

Deafness is a congenital and hereditary problem in blue-eyed white cats. Deafness in old age is caused by senile calcification within the middle ear. Temporary or partial deafness may be associated with ear infections. Apart from clearing any ear infections, nothing can be done for deafness. When cats become deaf, it is important to keep them away from motor vehicles.

Hematoma

Hematoma (in this instance, cauliflower ear) is seen far less often in the cat than in the dog. It is caused by a burst blood vessel in the ear lobe. The ear will need veterinary attention so that it can be drained and sutured for about a fortnight. It usually follows extensive head shaking or scratching because of irritation caused by an infection of the inner ear canal.

Infected Ears

Head shaking, scratching and odor from the ears all indicate infections. Ear infections are usually started by mites in the ear canal. In a recent survey, some 25 per cent of cats were found to have ear mites. The mites burrow and produce inflammation of the skin of the ear canal, which paves the way for secondary bacterial infection. The canal is usually moist and warm, and the leakage of serum from the attacking mites provides an excellent medium for bacteria and fungi to grow. In some cases of severe infestation, fits may occur.
After cleaning the ears thoroughly with a 1 per cent Hibitane solution, control the mites by treating with one of the commercial ear drops that are available from your veterinary surgeon. It is important when treating your cat’s ears to clean out any residual debris before the next treatment.
This can be done with cotton buds (or cotton-wool on a matchstick) dipped in methylated spirits. Also clean the nozzle of the eardrop container before and after application to each ear to prevent transfer of infection. Shake the container well first. Place the prescribed number of drops in the ear and massage the ear canal down behind the jawbone for about thirty seconds to ensure that the drops go to the bottom of the ear (otherwise the cat will shake them out). Always complete the prescribed course. Many drops contain a local anesthetic which gives immediate relief from the pain but does not mean the infection is cleared up. After a cat has had an infection of the ear, watch it carefully for a month to six weeks in case the infection returns. In severe cases, seek veterinary attention as the cat may have to be anesthetized to allow the ear to be syringed clean before the first treatment.

Hair Loss

Partial hair loss immediately in front of an ear in the temple region may be due to ringworm, grass mites or notoedric mange. If the skin appears normal although sparsely haired and the cat is not scratching at the area, the lack of hair is probably normal for that cat.

Eclampsia

When a queen is suckling a large litter, there is the danger that she may suffer from calcium deficiency. In extreme cases she may suffer from the disorder eclampsia, when the kittens are three to eight weeks old. Symptoms include shivering, heavy breathing, staggering, high temperature and eventual coma. Take her immediately to the vet, who will administer an injection of calcium. The kittens, at that age, can be weaned.

Electrocution

When the cat has received an electric shock, apply artificial respiration to revive it, treat for shock and take it to the vet.

Euthanasia

Euthanasia (painless death) usually involves the administration of an overdose of anesthetic. The cat dies within six seconds.

Facial Paralysis

Injuries to the nerves controlling the facial muscles cause droopiness on the side of the face affected. Sometimes saliva runs from the paralyzed corner of the mouth. If secondary to a wound or abscess, it is then a matter of time after these have been corrected to ascertain whether the nerve has recovered

Eye Disorders

The appearance of the eyes is very important in reflecting the condition of your cat. The most common abnormality is a prolapse of the third eyelid, which is often referred to by owners as a skin growing over the eye from the corner. This condition can be caused by tranquilization or, more commonly, is a non-specific indication that the cat is in ill health. It can be caused by worms, viruses, including cat flu (panleukopaenia) or feline leukemia virus, dietary abnormalities such as vitamin A deficiency, fatty acid deficiency and anaemic conditions. If the cat has prolapse of the third eyelids but is in perfect health otherwise, do not be alarmed—it may be incubating a disease which its body will overcome without help. If other signs are present, consult your veterinary surgeon.

Blindness

Blindness is rare in cats and usually occurs only in the very aged animal. Providing the cat remains in its own environment, its other sensory mechanisms will permit it to live a normal life.

A reversible inflammatory condition of the nerve of the can cause sudden temporary blindness in young cats. vitamin A deficiencies and low protein diets can also cause – Because of the complexity and interconnections, many of the eye diseases, treatment is best left to your veterinary surgeon.

Cataracts

Cataracts are rarely seen in cats, but when present may be associated with sugar diabetes. Dilation of the oval black pupils, in this case coupled with third eyelid prolapse. As with the feline respiratory diseases, Siamese and Burmese cats are the most susceptible. Because of the difficulty of treatment, veterinary attention is essential. Otherwise blindness may result.

Runny or Pussy Eyes

Runny or pussy eyes can be caused by conjunctivitis (which is an inflammation of the mucous membranes of the eyes caused by infection), a foreign body in the eye, dust or dirt. Home treatment includes rinsing the eye with an eye wash or boracic acid solution. If the condition does not resolve itself within twenty-four hours take the cat to the vet.

Dilated Pupils

The dilation of the pupils from the normal vertical slit to the circular black area in the eyes is a non-specific sign the cat is unwell. This is particularly the case if the fail to constrict when a torch is shone in the eyes. It is commonly seen in vitamin B-group deficiencies, tick poisoning, ocular neuritis (inflammation of the optic nerve) many other debilitating sicknesses of the cat.

Keratitis

Keratitis is an inflammatory condition of the glassy part of the eye (the cornea). It starts as a blue haze and can progress to ulceration, pigmentation and finally, with the growth of blood vessels, can give the appearance of a red, fleshy sore. The most common cause of keratitis in the cat is the feline respiratory virus. It is a common and serious disease in cats, particularly in kittens. In young cats four to weeks of age it is not uncommon for this condition to continue for six to eight weeks, despite intensive treatment. An acute viral conjunctivitis; in this case caused by the cat `flu’ syndrome. Runny eyes can also be caused by a blocked tear duct. These ducts normally take excess tear production from the eyes to the inside of the nose. They can be permanently damaged in Persian cats or any breed with a pushed-in face. They may also become blocked with the cat flu virus or by infection. Sometimes the cat is born with the end of the tear duct covered by a fold of skin. The veterinarian will administer a dye to the eye and note its appearance at the nostril. Sometimes the duct can be flushed clear. Acute conjunctivitis is indicated by a sensitivity to light; the eye is closed and there is a watery, profuse discharge. The mucous membrane of the eye is red. In chronic cases there is less watery discharge, less sensitivity to light and the eye is usually open. Conjunctivitis may also be caused by entropion, an inward turning of the eyelashes which rub on the eye. Ectropion is an outward turning of the eyelids, allowing accumulation of dust in the eye. Entropion, especially of the cat’s left lower eyelid, causing conjunctivitis. To apply eye ointment: push the two lids towards the nose and place the ointment in the corner.

Feline Aids

Is an immune-deficiency disease allowing the affected cat to succumb to other diseases. It is transmitted in the saliva, usually by biting. There is a higher incidence in undersexed males. It will not cause aids in humans. There is no vaccine.

Feline Enteritis

Feline enteritis is a major infectious disease of cats, usually known as feline panleukopaenia. There is no effective treatment for this viral disease. Prevention is by vaccination of kittens at ten weeks and again twelve to eighteen months later.

Feline Infectious Anemia

This is caused by a blood parasite which attacks the red blood corpuscles. Many cats carry this parasite without ever showing adverse symptoms. A flare-up only happens when a cat’s natural resistance is markedly lowered by stress, starvation or disease. The cat gets a high persistent fever with loss of appetite and a rapidly developing anaemia noticeable in its very pale mucous membrane. Because of the anaemia, the cat becomes depressed weak. The cat should be taken to your veterinary surgeon
Feline Leukemia Virus

Feline leukemia virus infects cats of all ages. It is a cancer which results in tumors in various parts of the body and is ultimately fatal. There is a very long incubation period, during which time the cat becomes – down and susceptible to other diseases. Leukemia may also be associated with anaemia, breeding and deaths in young kittens. Infection can become a serious problem where numbers of cats are housed together. as a breeding cattery. Evidence at this stage shows that the leukaemia virus of cats cannot cause disease in human/ Cats that are infected shed the virus in their saliva, and nasal discharges. Other cats become infected by taking these excretions into their mouths. This can happen sharing feed bowls, licking, biting or merely being in contact with other cats. Queens can also transmit the disease to their kittens before they are born or afterwards in the milk. In dry situations the virus does not last more than few hours. Some cats develop a resistance to the virus although sometimes the resistance is only enough to prevent disease symptoms from appearing but not enough to eliminate the virus. This results in a symptomless state. Although there is no treatment for the disease, there is a special blood test which can be done to detect contaminated cats. A vaccine is available.

Feline Respiratory Disease

A viral infection of the upper respiratory tract, also known as ‘cat flu’ and ‘snuffles’. It is easily transmitted, but can be prevented by a course of vaccination. The importance of vaccinating your cat against this disease and feline panleukopaenia

Feline Neurological Syndrome (FUS)

F.U.S. is characterized by cystitis with blood in the female cat, and a blockage of the urinary tract in the male cat. It is more common in males. The condition appears to have been increasing in incidence in recent years—the increase is ascribed by some to the growing popularity of dry cat food. The condition is comparatively rare in cats under one year but peaks at two years of age. Affected cats are more likely to be neutered, lazy males that have restricted access to outdoors. They are more likely to live in households with more than one cat and long-haired breeds seem to be more susceptible. Affected cats tend to drink less. A recent survey indicated that the feeding of dry food is numerically associated with the occurrence of F.U.S. in clinical cases of the condition; but of these cases, 25 per cent had received no dry cat food in their diet.
In the early stages of the condition the male cat licks his penis frequently, occasionally producing sufficient trauma to cause bleeding. The penis is often protruded from the sheath for considerable periods of time. The cat may often become dirty about the house, squatting in odd corners of the room attempting to urinate and avoiding his sanitary Attempts at urination with vigorous straining efforts are often accompanied by a loud groaning cry. Sometimes the owner attributes this to constipation and treats the cat with this, with a resultant loss in valuable time. In early a hard, swollen area the size of an orange can be felt the abdomen. This is the distended bladder. Sometimes can see a yellowish, chalky material in the eye of the after twenty-four to thirty-six hours, the cat may go into almost a comatose condition. In these cases, the bladder may be rupture if handled. Signs of coma, vomiting, dehydration collapse precede death. Treatment by a veterinary professional is therefore essential. By the time the owner realizes the cat is in trouble, the ease has usually progressed to a serious stage, and even through the removal of the urinary plug causing the problem the cat is to be hospitalized for some days. Intravenous electrolyte therapy, together with appropriate antibiotics, is necessary. Straining, and licking the tip of the penis, are signs of Prevention of recurrence is very important, for once the cat has suffered an obstruction it is highly probable that the condition will recur, often with an increasing frequency. It 1s suggested that there is some physiological difference between stone-forming and non-stone-forming cats. In stoneforming cats preventative measures are aimed at reduction of the urinary magnesium concentration by provision of a diet low in magnesium. at dilution of the urine, and lowering the specific gravity of the urine. The cat should be fed foods low in magnesium for at least fourteen days to allow the excretion of any excess magnesium from the body. Following this, they should be fed with milk and low-magnesium food. Water should be available to the cat at all times. The normal diet of the cat is rich in magnesium. Consult your vet for information on local brands. When cats are introduced to dry foods it is important to teach them to drink. This can be done by adding water to the dry food to make it mushy or by adding salt to the food. Initially the dry food should form only a part of the diet, not the entire diet. A cat transferred from a wet diet containing 70 per cent water (such as canned food) to a dry food diet would require ten times as much fluid intake. One reason for the increased incidence of F.U.S. might be that cats transferred to a dry diet do not increase their water intake sufficiently. Stone-forming cats should be allowed easy access to outdoors for the purpose of urinating, as it is known that retention of urine within the bladder helps to produce F.U.S. Fat cats appear to be more prone to develop this condition, so dietary measures should be aimed at reducing the body weight—always providing that magnesium rich foods are not a part of such dietary measures. In the female cat F.U.S. does not result in obstruction, as the female’s urethra is short and larger in diameter. The clinical signs in the female are a tendency to urinate around the house instead of in its sanitary tray, and increased frequency of urination with only small quantities passed. The act of urination appears to be painful, with the cat squatting and straining for several minutes at a time. Usually the urine becomes bloodstained and has a strong ammonia odor. Veterinary treatment is still important.

Fever

Fever is a rise in body temperature and can be caused by viruses, such as feline enteritis, feline respiratory disease: feline leukaemia; bacteria, such as those from infected bites (abscesses), septicemia or kidney disease; muscle contractions caused by convulsions or excitement; paralysis, of the respiratory system (for example, from tick poisoning resulting in inability to ventilate properly; heatstroke. The cat’s normal temperature is 38.5°C.

First Aid Box

A number of things that could be kept in an emergency first aid box is limitless. The following is a basic list.
Acriflavin, mercurochrome, triple dye, zinc creamWound dressing powder (preferably one containing an antibiotic)Antibiotic/cortisone skin ointment Antibiotic dispenser Antibiotic eye ointment Eye wash Antiseptic wash (e.g. chlorhexidene)Hydrogen peroxide 3%Flea powder Flea rinse A roll of 5-centimeter wide adhesive bandage, such as Elastoplast Two rolls of conforming gauze bandage or clean white cloth Cotton-wool Scissors 50 milliliters liquid paraffin Tweezers Thermometer Cat carry basket

Fish Hooks

Fish hooks are a common problem; fishermen arrive horn, with a bait on the end of their line; the cat eats the bait and the hook as well. If the cat will remain still and the hook is in accessible place—for example, the lip—the shaft of the hoc, the line should be cut with a pair of pliers or snips. The hook is then continued on its path and out. Fish hooks usually have to be removed under general anesthetic.

Fits

If the fits are due to a flea wash or other skin contaminants wash the cat immediately in copious quantities of water
A cat that is having a fit should be placed in a bag, or other container and kept as quiet as possible in a semi-dark room until the fit has passed. Then take it urgently to a veterinary surgeon. It is very difficult to make a cat vomit—don’t try. Go to the vet. Fits in the cat, although not common, are usually companied by frothing at the mouth.
Common poisonings are caused by bathing cats in Malathion, or tick _ flea rinses of an incorrect dosage. Another poison cause problems is strychnine. This is usually from baits laid intentionally for noisy dogs in the neighborhood. Encephalitis, inflammation of the brain—caused by bacterial or viral infections.
Epilepsy is uncommon in cats. Fits can be caused by low blood glucose level or low blood calcium particularly in females that have just had a litter of kittens and are in heavy lactation.

Flu

A flu’ is another name for feline respiratory disease.

Fractures

Fractures in the cat are rare. They usually occur as a result of motor vehicle accidents or falls from heights. The most common reason for fractures is nutritional secondary parathyroidism (N.S.H.), which is a dangerous consequence of an all-meat diet. This causes the cat to have thin-walled bones. Cats with this condition can fracture a ice by merely jumping from a table. To handle a cat with a fracture, lift the cat by the scruff of the neck and support its body but leave the fractured area dangling. Place it in box or blanket and take it to the vet.

Fungal skin infections

Moniliasis affects the external ear canal, nail folds, anal opening and vaginal membranes. Sores on the mucous membranes appear as grey-white areas with a foul-smelling discharge; external sores are covered with a brown crust. Diagnosis and treatment of these sores are best left to your veterinary surgeon. Ringworm is very common, particularly in young kittens, and affects the head and legs, with a tendency to become generalized. The classic case begins as one or more pinkish, scaly areas which spread outwards. The condition is caused by a fungus (not a worm) which invades the wall of the hair. The hair becomes brittle and breaks off close to the skin. The mature sore is well-defined, round, discrete and covered with adhering grey scales. Diagnosis and therapy are best left to a veterinary surgeon. Ringworm can be transferred to humans; it is common for young children to get ringworm from kittens. Ringworm of the claws is very similar in appearance to paronychia. The claws become misshapen and have a mottled appearance. The claw shell becomes loose and is usually shed. Local treatment three times daily for fourteen days with tincture of iodine is often satisfactory. Otherwise see your vet.

Grass Eating

Grass eating is normal and is done for two reasons: the first to take in essential vitamins and minerals; the second is cause the cat to vomit stale food.

Groaning

Groaning is usually due to the cat having severe pain, as 1:1 a blocked bladder. The cat has a deep yowling cry.

Hematoma

Hematoma can cause cauliflower ear.

Handling Cats

In their normal domestic situation most cats are quite calm and placid, but sometimes the veneer of domestication wears thin—for example, during traveling, or after injury. When transporting a cat, confine it in a firmly fastened basket, carrying case, zip bag or pillow slip. Ensure that the cat has sufficient air. When restraining a cat, take it by the scruff of the neck (the loose skin behind the ears) and the back legs; hold it firmly. An injured cat will sometimes bite its owner. Keep the cat’s mouth away from you. Vicious cats can be caught by using a cat-catcher, which is a 1.5-meter length of hollow pipe through which a rope loop has been passed. The loop is placed over the cat’s head at a distance and pulled tight through the pipe. The cat can then be placed in a bag, basket or case. Once captured, a vicious cat is best handled by a professional such as the vet.

Hare-Lip

Iodine deficiency in the pregnant cat or cortisone administered to a queen during pregnancy may produce deformity in her kittens—where there is a cleft in the roof of the mouth.

Head Down
Flexion of the head downwards.

Head Shaking

Head shaking is usually a sign of irritation in the ear.

Heatstroke

Cats suffer greatly from excessive heat and should not be left in hot rooms or cars. Long-haired cats, especially, will become overheated very quickly. Cats have a very small body weight at 4 kilograms, and a high surface area per unit mass of body. This means the cat’s thermostatic mechanism has a much more difficult time controlling fluctuations in the outside temperature than that of most other animals. Symptoms of heat exhaustion in a cat are fever, heavy and labored breathing, vomiting, prostration and eventually coma. Remove the cat to a cool place, wet it thoroughly and place it in a draught or in front of a fan. Do not give it any liquid while it is unconscious. When it regains consciousness, give it a stimulant, such as a teaspoonful of made coffee, which contains caffeine. Take it to a veterinary surgeon, as it will require further treatment for the next few days.

Hernia (Ruptures)

Four types of hernias are seen in cats:
Diaphragmatic hernia—caused when the diaphragm ruptures, allowing the intestines and other abdominal organs (such as the liver) to invade the thoracic cavity. This makes accident difficult for the cat to breathe. This condition is usually the result of a motor vehicle accident. Inguinal hernia—appears as a soft swelling in the groin, on one or both sides. The swelling may vary in size from time to time and usually disappears on pressure. This condition is hereditary, and treatment involves surgery. Scrotal hernia—occurs when part of the bowel descends into the scrotum with the testicles. This condition is very rare in the cat and does require surgery. Umbilical hernia—located in the centre of the abdomen in the region of the navel. Small ones contain only fat and are best left alone. Surgery on larger ones should be left to the discretion of your veterinary surgeon.

Hair-Balls

Much fuss is made about hair-balls, particularly by Breeders. As a practicing veterinary surgeon I have rarely seen them cause problems in cats. Usually the cat copes quite well by regurgitating the ball of hair. Certainly the administration of paraffin or vegetable oil will help the cat pass the hair-balls. This should be administered at the rate of half a teaspoon twice a week.

Hormonal Problems

Hormonal imbalance in the cat manifests itself in strange behavior and in skin disorders. Consult your vet for diagnosis and treatment.

Incoordination

Lack of coordination can be of a general nature and caused by an ear infection, a central nervous system disease such as meningitis or encephalitis, or vitamin A or thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiencies. General illness can cause weakness. Weakness in the hind legs can be due to ticks, fractures of the spine or limbs, dislocated hip joint or infections caused by cat bites.

Irritability

Irritability can be caused by a general disease situation, but it is more usually caused by a dietary deficiency of vitamin B, especially thiamine (vitamin B1). It can also be caused by vitamin E deficiencies (when high unsaturated fatty acids have been fed—for example, canned red tuna, cod liver oil, liver and horse meat). Excess vitamin A, in high liver diets, can also cause irritability.

Jaundice

The causes of jaundice in the cat are similar to those in the dog.

Kidney Disease

Kidney disease is very common in cats, particularly in old age. The signs include loss of appetite, weight loss, increased drinking of water to the point of sitting over the water bowl, vomiting, diarrhea or constipation, dehydration, ulceration of the tongue and gums, brownish scum on teeth, increased frequency of urination, occasionally increased respiratory rate, anemia and depression. In many cases, the disease has progressed to a serious stage by the time the cat is brought for veterinary attention and permanent damage may have been done to the kidneys. Because of the complexity of the different types of urinary diseases and the different methods of treatment for each of them, early veterinary attention is advised. Once the kidney disease crisis has been controlled, conservative medical management can be instituted. This includes maintaining fluids, electrolytes and acid/base balance by providing unlimited access to water. The excretory load of waste products in the blood presented to the kidneys should be reduced. Protein intake must be lowered to reduce the excretory load on the kidneys. The caloric value of the diet must be raised to compensate for the reduced protein content and to ensure that body proteins are not used for energy purposes. Experiments have shown that cats will accept up to 64 per cent fat in their diet and remain healthy. Apparently cats find such a diet very palatable, so it may be preferable to give more fat than starches. Protein content of the diet should be of high biological value—lean meat, chicken, eggs, cottage cheese, milk and cream. As the kidneys eventually lose their ability to conserve sodium, salt should be given in the drinking water at the rate of ‘/4 teaspoonful per 500 milliliters. Cats with kidney disease must be allowed unrestricted access to water. Only if significant vomiting occurs after drinking should the supply of water be regulated and then only until vomiting has been brought under control by the use of drugs. Maintain the animal’s appetite by using appetite increasers (anabolic agents), treat all infections properly, and eliminate any vomiting or diarrhea. Care must also be taken when prescribing drugs for cats with kidney diseases, as the kidneys are the major route of excretion of drugs.

Lameness

Lameness can be due to abscesses, fight wounds, fractures of the leg, a dislocated hip, foreign bodies in the pads (such as glass, burrs or thorns), infections between the toes, and ruptured ligaments in the knee joint. Stiffness in the foreleg may be due to excess vitamin A in the diet, particularly where liver is fed.

Leprosy

A bacterial skin infection in the cat, affecting mainly the skin on the head.

Loss of Balance

Middle ear infections can cause loss of balance. It can also be an indication of ticks or of vitamin B deficiency, especially thiamine (vitamin B1) deficiency.

Malabsorption Syndrome

Malabsorption is the end result of any disease affecting the small intestine or its lymphatic drainage to the extent that there is interference with the passage of digested nutrients into the appropriate circulatory system. It is a very complex syndrome and can only be diagnosed and dealt with by a vet.

Mange

Inflammation of the skin caused by mites. The condition is usually referred to as grass itch.

Mastitis

Mastitis is an inflammation of the mammary glands which usually occurs during lactation—although occasionally a torn may suffer from the same condition. The mammary gland is a hollow, moist, warm organ where bacteria can multiply rapidly, causing a high temperature and making the gland hot, swollen and painful. Suckling kittens may become unwell as the milk is watery, blood tinged, clotted and contains pus. Abscess formation and rupture of the wall of the gland may also occur. It is important to seek veterinary aid immediately. Where possible the gland should be milked out continually and the animal put on to antibiotics. Hot compresses on the outside of the gland will increase circulation of the antibiotics and give some pain relief. Retention of milk after losing a litter can precipitate mastitis.

Metabolic Skin Conditions

Endocrine dermatitis affects the hindquarters and abdomen of the cat. It affects both sides symmetrically and results in partial hair loss, with the remaining hair short, dry and brittle. The skin appears normal; there is no redness, scaling or itchiness. The animal is usually a castrated male desexed female; it is rare in unaltered cats. The condition can be rectified by treatment with thyroid tablets and appropriate hormone therapy. Nutritional alopecia usually appears as a short, ungroomed coat which is harsh and lusterless, accompanied by excessive shedding and generalized dandruff. but no itchiness. It is usually seen in undernourished animals and in females under the strain of late pregnancy or heavy lactation. A good response is achieved by providing the animal with an ample and adequate high 130 percent diet with mineral and multi-vitamins and nutrients. Where possible, wean her kittens.

Milk for Kittens

Cat’s milk contains about twice as much protein as cow’s milk, so care needs to be taken when feeding orphaned kittens. Weaning should commence at about four weeks

Mineral Imbalance

The calcium : phosphorus ratio is an important factor in the health of the cat, particularly pregnant and lactating queens. Cats susceptible to feline urological syndrome will probably need a diet that is low in magnesium.

Miscellaneous Dermatoses

Lick dermatitis occurs on the inside of thighs, the lower abdomen, back and tail, and any other area that the animal can lick conveniently. It is more common in short-haired thoroughbred cats. The signs are well-defined areas of complete hairlessness. The surrounding hair is usually stained brownish-red by the saliva in light-colored cats. Various degrees of inflammation are seen in the hairless skin. The cat continuously licks the area. The condition probably starts with a local irritation arising from any number of causes, but boredom and nervousness are psychological factors that do contribute to the condition. In many cases, response to therapy is disappointing. Sometimes a change in the animal’s environment and routine is all that is necessary. Rodent ulcer (eosinophilic granuloma) usually develops in the upper lip opposite the canine tooth. It can occur on the hard or soft palate and occasionally on the skin of abdomen, legs and feet. The lip usually shows an early localized zone of inflammation with a raised edge, progressing to a yellowish-pink ulcerated area with a glistening surface. It can occur elsewhere on the body as circumscribed, multiple, hairless, granulating, pink, moist areas on the abdomen and the inside of the thighs and feet. The cause is uncertain, though it is generally thought to be caused by the cat’s rough tongue. The lesion may eventually develop into a cancer. This condition should be seen by a veterinary surgeon immediately. Stud tail occurs on the top side of the tail, along the midline of the back, and occasionally extends to the head. It is caused by the activities of the cat during mating. Signs are scant or profuse, dry or oily, white or yellowish-white flaky scales throughout the hair. They vary in size from 1 to 3 millimeters. There is no complete cure, but the condition can be kept under control by regular bathing in hexachlorophene or Seleen shampoo.

Motor Vehicle Accidents

If the cat runs away from the accident on all fours it can be assumed that its skeletal structure is unharmed. The cat should be caught and checked by a vet for internal injuries.
If the cat is lying on the road gently move it to safety, allow it sufficient time (say, five or ten minutes) to recuperate from the shock of the accident before moving it. Then take the scruff of the cat’s neck in one hand and slip the other hand under the cat’s body. This should be done from behind the cat in order to avoid your being bitten. Be warned: cats in this situation will bite their owners. Take the cat immediately to a veterinary surgeon. If the cat has severe respiratory difficulty, do not leave it to rest but hold it upside down by the hind legs to allow any blood to drain the lungs.

If there is any bleeding of an extremity, place a tourniquet between the wound and the heart. If the bleeding coming from the body where it is difficult to apply a tourniquet, use a clean handkerchief and apply pressure to reduce the blood flow.

Mouth Disorders

_orders of the mouth in cats are now extremely common. :s particularly concerning that few cats reach middle age -;.::bout severe ‘dental caries—usually resulting in extraction their teeth. This may be a reflection of the soft diets that they are fed. When it is still a kitten. the cat should be encouraged to :ear and strip meat from large bones. Dry food also has a good effect on reducing the build-up of tartar on the teeth.

Bad Breath

Bad breath can be due to the type of diet being fed, particularly fresh meat. Any one of the following conditions .:an also cause bad breath.

Bleeding

The mouth is a very vascular cavity and sharp objects can easily lacerate the blood vessels. Take the cat to a veterinary surgeon, as a general anesthetic may be needed to Locate the damaged vessels.

Dribbling

Dribbling can be caused by convulsions, poisoning, stimulation of the salivary glands by infection or by chemical substances, bad teeth, infections of the mouth caused by viruses, bacteria or other organisms, trench mouth or infections of the gum. Some cats may dribble when earring—this is normal.

Inflammation of the Gums

Inflammation of the gums is also associated with kidney disease. Imbalances of calcium in the diet will cause the gums to recede from the teeth, gaps in which food can accumulate. This food will decay, causing bad breath.

Trench mouth

Trench mouth is a complex of organisms which cause inflammation in the arches of the back of the mouth. It leads to salivation and bad breath. There is a theory that the condition is perpetuated by dietary deficiencies. Trench mouth is a very difficult condition to treat. The B-group vitamins may help, although for effective treatment veterinary advice should be sought.

Nails

Paronychia is a disorder in which the ends of the toes are swollen and pus is visible in the claw fold.

Neoplasms of the Skin

The cell carcinoma commonly appears on the tips of ears. the eyelids, nose and other skin areas sparsely covered by hair. It is more frequent in unpigmented skin lightly colored cats. The lesion is usually single and irregular in size and shape, and appears as a red, slightly raised, ulcerating area, with a thickened border. The speed of invasion of surrounding healthy tissue varies greatly, and in the latter stage a secondary spread to the local lymph nodes and lungs is common. Because it is cancer. take the cat to your veterinary surgeon immediately for a diagnosis. Basal cell carcinomas may appear anywhere on the cat’s body but the neck is the most frequent site. The tumor is usually a single, discrete, rounded, rubbery, hairless elevation. and the surface may ulcerate. This condition requires veterinary attention immediately.

Nose Disorders

The sense of smell in the cat is very important to the animal’s eating habits. Cats will only eat if they can smell their food. Sick cats, especially those with upper respiratory diseases, should be offered smelly foods such as sardines, pilchards or tuna. In addition, the nose should be kept free of discharge by regular cleaning and the use of decongestants.

Cancer of the Nose

Cancer of the nose follows rodent ulcer of the lip and spreads to the nose area. In the early stages it is seen as a wet, weeping chronic sore. The cat is very sensitive in the nasal area. As the cancer invades further into the nose, the lesion becomes more inflamed. The cat’s face becomes so sore that it will not eat and it tends to snuffle. The earlier therapy can commence the better chance the cat has of survival. Failure to respond to conventional therapy indicates that a cancerous change has taken place and radiation treatment is indicated.

Discharge

If a nasal discharge is watery, it may indicate an allergic sinusitis. If it is accompanied by sneezing it indicates feline. respiratory disease. A pussy discharge may indicate a later stage of the viral disease or an infection of the sinuses or lower areas of the respiratory system, such as pneumonia. If the discharge is coming from one nostril only, the condition is localized to one side of the sinuses; it may indicate a cheek tooth-root abscess, or a local infection.

Obesity

Obesity is less of a problem in the cat than it is in the dog. However, more cats are now becoming overweight as a result of leading a sedentary life and being fed good quality commercial rations. It is unhealthy for any animal to be overweight. The most effective way of dieting a cat is to choose a nutritious food which is relatively unpalatable for the cat. If the cat has been on a moist or fresh meat diet, convert it to a dry food diet or try different brands of tinned cat food. Frequently, cats have a very narrow range of foods that they find palatable, so keep trying until you find an unpalatable one. Some cats in urban areas are always in the kitchen, always waiting for high-calorie food dropped by a sympathetic owner. Cats in the wild need to be slim and lithe in order to catch their prey. If they become overweight they are not fast enough to catch their food and they starve until they slim down. Domestic cats are handed their food even when overweight. This is unhealthy and unnatural. Apart from selecting an unpalatable food, feed the cat only one meal a day. It is important to remain steadfast and not give in to the temptation to supplement the cat’s diet with more appetizing food. When the cat becomes hungry, the relatively unpalatable food will be appetizing enough for it to eat. Another diet for slimming a fat cat is to feed it on alternate days with its usual highly palatable diet and leave dehydrated food or unpalatable food around for it to eat on the other days. However, despite these measures, a cat’s natural agility allows it to scale high fences and beg food from a softhearted neighbor.

Old Age

The average lifespan of a cat is fifteen years, but cats can live into their twenties. The most common problems affecting older cats are dental decay and associated gum problems, and kidney disease. The dental problem can be largely avoided by veterinary check-ups on a twelve-monthly basis. The kidney problem arises because cats eat large amounts of protein, and the kidney of the cat has a remarkable capacity to concentrate urine. This no doubt takes its toll towards the end of the cat’s life. In many cases the kidney and mouth problems are directly related. The cat usually dribbles, drinks excessively, and gradually loses weight.

Painful All Over

Sometimes cats react painfully to touch over large areas of their body. This can be due to multiple cat bites or to a condition called steatitis caused by diets high in unsaturated fatty acids, such as canned red tuna, any sort of fish, cod-liver oil, liver and horse meat.
If the cat’s diet is also low in vitamin E, it will produce steatitis. Most commercial manufacturers are now aware of the problem and add vitamin E to the food. Affected cats are irritable, reluctant to move and have a fever. They have a generalized pain from inflamed body fat which takes on a yellow color. The history of a diet mainly of fish or large amounts of fish oil suggests the diagnosis. Treatment consists of vitamin therapy, 50 milligrams per day, plus a change in diet.

Paralysis

Paralysis is most commonly caused by tick poisoning. Other causes are severance of the spine after a motor vehicle accident; dog attack; an abscess over the back which causes such severe pain that the cat refuses to use its back legs; snake bite; and spider bite.

Parasites

The larger parasites are worms (roundworms, hookworms. tapeworms, lungworms), fleas, mites and ticks.

Penis Licking

This can be a sign of feline urological syndrome in the male cat.

Parasitic Skin Infections

Feline flea dermatitis can either be localized to the inside of the thighs, the abdomen, under the forelegs and sometimes the base of the tail, or be more generalized and include the lower back, the spinal region and the neck. In severe cases it may extend to cover the entire body. Two forms of the condition occur:Localized, inflamed, small, moist areas up to 2 centimeters across, which later develop into discrete, oval, weeping areas with intense itchiness; a generalized form which shows numerous, small, reddish-brown, moist crusted areas. The skin may become thickened, wrinkled and scaly. Partial hair loss may be evident and the areas will be obviously itchy. The lesions are due to the cat being highly sensitive to the flea saliva. This condition is very common in cats, and its prevention and control is by removal of fleas both from the cat and from its environment. This can resent problems of its own, as most insecticides are toxic oats. Malathion and carbaryl are the only two that offer me degree of safety. They are most conveniently used in form of powders or aerosol sprays, because cats do not being bathed. Powders should be rubbed well into the skin and the surface powder removed by smoothing the hair in its natural direction with a damp cloth. Alternatively, combing the hair after a few minutes will remove comatose fleas as well as excess flea powder. It is important when using any insecticide to read the instructions on the containers. Malathion can be used as a 2 per rent powder or a wash (20 per cent Malathion solution, diluted to 1 dessertspoon to 600 milliliters of water). It should not be used on kittens. Dichlorvos-impregnated powders are 90-100 per cent effective on cats, and the incidence of allergic reaction is low. Oral insecticides in the form of tablets or liquids are available. These should be used only as a last resort, as you would be feeding an insecticide to the cat! However, it doesn’t seem to cause them much harm. The liquid can be added to the food, which is ideal for difficult cats. Instead of having the cat attracting fleas from the surrounding environment to its body (and then trying to eradicate the fleas), it is much better to treat the cat’s surroundings. Use the insecticide in the environment, particularly under houses and in sandy spots where the cat may rest. A suitable insecticide is 30 per cent Malathion spray. Residual insecticides may be sprayed around the skirting boards and under furniture. In severe cases the services of professional pest exterminators may be required. Because cats are extremely sensitive to insecticidal preparations, they should be kept away from the treated area for at least forty-eight hours.

Flea-bite Allergic Dermatitis.

Fly strike usually occurs in incontinent, paralyzed or sick animals which are unable to groom themselves or attend to their wounds. The usual sites are around the anus and other body openings. The hair is moist and matted into clumps and can be pulled out easily. The skin is inflamed and usually has small holes which overlie pockets filled with numerous small white larvae. The area should be clipped and any dead tissue removed, then cleaned with a mild antiseptic solution and as many larvae as possible removed. Insecticidal powders will kill remaining larvae. Grass itch (from mites present in the grass) usually involves the external ear canal and the ear lobe, particularly the small cleft on the outer edge of the ear. The area between the ear and the eye may also be affected. Occasionally the condition may be generalized. The lesions appear as discrete, red, crusted lesions up to 2 centimeters in diameter. Small, bright red to orange-colored mites can be seen in the crust. Itchiness and self-trauma are also evident. Remove the crust and mites from the lesions and apply an insecticidal dust such as 5 per cent carbaryl powder at regular intervals. Keep the grass short in the cat’s environment by regular mowing, particularly in late summer and autumn. Lice infestation occurs around body openings. Lice do not penetrate the skin, but gain moisture by congregating around the bodily orifices (for example, ears, mouth, anus). Infestation can also be generalized. Signs include intense itchiness and a dry, matted, neglected coat with loose hair. Lice can be effectively treated by insecticidal powders.

Poisoning

The most common type of poisoning in the cat is caused by washing it in flea rinses. In these cases a cat salivates profusely and may convulse. First aid measures are to wash the cat thoroughly in copious quantities of clean water to dilute the insecticide remaining on the coat and skin. Prevent the cat from licking the coat and take it to a veterinary surgeon immediately. The causes of poisoning in the dog are also relevant to the cat.

Pyometron

This is an infection of the womb (uterus). It normally occurs after a pregnancy. The queen becomes dull, listless and off her food. She may drink excessively and vomit. There may be a pussy discharge from the vagina. Surgery to remove the puss-filled womb (hysterectomy should be performed urgently.

Respiratory Problems

Respiratory disease in the cat is almost entirely confined to cat flu (feline respiratory disease).

Shaking the Head

Shaking the head usually indicates an irritation in the ear.

Shock

Shock can follow severe injury, as from car accidents or snake bites. The cat may not be conscious; its eyes be glassy, staring and vacant; the body may shiver or shake; and breathing may be shallow and irregular. The animal may also vomit and have diarrhea. Firstly, check for serious bleeding and apply artificial respiration as the situation warrants. Keep the cat warm with a blanket, sweater, and water bottle and tilt the head down. Tilt the whole body a head-down position to assist the flow of blood to the Take the animal to a veterinary surgeon as soon as possible.

Skin Disorders

Overall incidence of skin disease in the cat, particularly when compared to that in the dog, is relatively 7:1. Probably because of the cat’s fastidious habits of cleanliness. However, when a skin disease is present, the cat’s habits of licking and grooming lead to great difficulties with treatment and therefore delay healing. Sometimes the medication is swallowed, giving rise to side pain as many medications are toxic to the cat. The range substances that can be used with safety in treating skin ceases in the cat is therefore somewhat limited. In general. lotions and tinctures are better accepted than greasy oils and creams

Skin Infections

Allergic skin infections are usually a generalized condition, with intense scratching, biting and licking at the skin. The condition can also be accompanied by diarrhea. It is an allergic response—various foodstuffs such as milk, canned cat food, raw and cooked beef, rabbit, chicken, whale meat and penicillin have been incriminated. The diagnosis of this condition is a veterinary matter.

Snake Bite

Although cats in urban areas are rarely bitten by snakes, it is a problem in the peripheral areas of the city and in rural areas. Snake bite usually appears as two small punctures of the skin. The symptoms include swelling, intense pain, weakness, shortness of breath, vomiting, poor vision and eventual paralysis. Try to keep the cat still by wrapping it in a blanket or coat, as excitement or motion tends to increase the movement of the venom in the bloodstream towards the heart. If the bite is on an extremity, such as a leg, apply a firm bandage to the whole of the leg. This is a constriction band to prevent the venom from flowing towards the heart. The latest information is that the snake bite should not be cut. Get the cat to a veterinary surgeon as soon as possible.

Sneezing

Continuous sneezing is one of the symptoms of feline respiratory disease.

Spaying

Removing (or destroying) the ovaries of a female.

Stiffness

This can be caused by deficiencies of vitamin E or excesses in vitamin A. Wounds, abscesses or motor vehicle accidents.

Stings

This are common in cats. They can be painful and particularly if the cat is allergic. When stung, the animal usually cries out, leaps into the air to escape by climbing the nearest tree or examine the swollen area, and if a sting is visible miaow it with tweezers. Ice packs or cold wet cloths apply all to the swelling will help to reduce the pain and swelling relief, particularly where the bite involves a vein or vital organ. Where the sting is from a venomous insect or the symptoms are similar to snake bite.

Stones

Early stages of feline urological syndrome (F.U.S.), aimed swollen area can be felt in the male cat’s abdomen. The cat will have difficulty in urinating and will constantly it penis in an attempt to ease the irritation. The condition worsens rapidly, and if the bladder ruptures death fellow.

Tail Disorders

Reeding Tail Tip

It is usually a consequence of the cat chasing its tail and biting This is an indication for an Elizabethan collar around the cat’s neck so that the tail is inaccessible (the Elizabethan) collar is more frequently used on dogs, to stop them themselves). If the condition occurs often, a quick, permanent solution is to amputate the tail at the base. Amputating the tip of the tail does not stop the problem.

Kinks in the Tail

Kinks in the tail are due to dislocation of the vertebrae in the tail, usually when the cat is immature. Splinting will rectify the problem in many cases.

A Limp Tail

This usually indicates a fracture of the pelvis or the base the tail, or infection from cat bites.

Skin Infections on the Tail

Skin infections can be due to flea dermatitis. In these cases there is hair loss with a pussy superficial sore over the base of the tail, extending down over the first 5-8 centimeters. If it is a very deep infection, it is due to cat bites, the most common site being the first 5 centimeters of the base of the tail. Close examination will reveal one or two holes about 3 millimeters in diameter, surrounded by devitalized skin which has lost its hair. If the area is squeezed, it sometimes releases pus. These wounds should be irrigated three times a day with 50 per cent peroxide and water. The cat also requires antibiotic therapy for at least five days. Failure to use antibiotics can result in gangrene of the tail.

Teeth Disorders

A cat has its full mouth of 30 permanent teeth by seven months of age—the twelve incisors appear at four months, the four canines at four and a half months, and the fourteen molars between six and seven months. For the next couple of years a cat’s teeth are usually trouble free.

Discoloration

A yellow discoloration of the teeth is due to the cat’s mother receiving medication during pregnancy, particularly tetracyclines. Nothing can be done to restore the nor- This kitten is losing the upper molars on both sides: Note the inflamed gums.
Some antibiotics, especially the Tetracyclines, when given during pregnancy can cause yellow enamel on the teeth. mal color of the teeth. Discoloration can also be due to tartar build-up.

Loose teeth

Multiplication of gum tissue and a premature loss of incisor teeth in front is seen in cats on diets that consist mainly of liver or are high in cod-liver oil, or where excess multi-vitamin preparations have been given. The problem is excess vitamin A.

Tartar

Dental plaque and tartar may start to form from the age of three years. The cause is not fully understood, but it is thought to be associated with a degree of alkalinity or acidity in the saliva. There must also be some predisposing factor in individual cats, since the majority of cats do maintain clean, healthy teeth in their old age. Tartar build-up is seen much more frequently since the introduction of soft, commercial foods. To prevent it, feed the cat dry foods occasionally and obtain some large meaty shank bones from the butcher on which the cat can exercise its teeth and gums. Inspect the cat’s teeth each six months, and if necessary take it to the vet. Very few cats will allow the tartar to be removed, so a general anesthetic is usually required.

Toxoplasmosis

Toxoplasmosis is transferable to man. In any given population about 25 per cent of adult humans have been exposed to this infection.
Toxoplasmosis is an intracellular parasite which is neither host specific nor tissue specific. The organism invades the cell, multiplies until the cell ruptures, then moves on to invade a further cell. Toxoplasmosis has been reported in animals and humans throughout the world.
At the onset of the disease in cats. Non-specific signs include lethargy, loss of appetite, weight loss and persistent high fever. This is followed by shortness of breath and acute abdominal disorders, such as vomiting, tenderness. liver enlargement and mild jaundice. As the toxoplasmosis egg has a three-day incubation period, daily disposal of the feces is recommended (wear plastic gloves). The cat excretes infective eggs for about two weeks after it has become infected. Cats should be fed on cooked or sterilized meats to reduce the possibility of contamination. Treatment should be left to the vet.

Urinary Incontinence

This has two major causes: disturbance of nerves supplying the bladder, and severe cystitis.
Disturbance of the nerves supplying the bladder can result from fractures of the back, or dislocation or inflammation of the spinal cord, or damage to the brain. In these cases there is a lack of voluntary urination, with the result that the bladder becomes distended with consequent overflow type dribbling of urine. Bacterial infection of the stagnant urine often occurs, so the condition is usually complicated by bacterial cystitis.
Severe, long-standing cystitis causes replacement of the muscle tissue of the bladder by either fibrous tissue or cancerous elements. This results in the bladder wall becoming hard and inelastic, so that urine overflow is a fairly constant dribble. There is no treatment. Unless the owner is prepared to cope with this problem, the cat should be euthanized.

Vomiting

Excessive vomiting causes a severe fluid deficit together with a loss of electrolytes. Classifying the cause of vomiting is difficult and the following list serves only to emphasize the complexity of the problem.
• Infectious diseases—feline panleucopaenia and hepatitis. Acute abdomen—acute pancreatitis, peritonitis, intestinal obstruction, penetrating wounds and ruptured organs within the body.
• Indigestion, pancreatitis, overeating, spoilt foods, poisons.
• Deformities of the gastrointestinal system.
• Metabolic disorders resulting in retention of by-products (nephritis).
• Drugs—such as digitalis, morphine and certain antibiotics.
• Nervous problems—motion sickness, injuries to the head and nervousness.
• Throat irritations—caused by enlarged tonsils, or by a piece of string with one end caught around the base of the tongue and the other end in the food pipe, stomach or small intestine.
• Bites—from ticks, snakes or spiders.
• Projectile vomiting—caused by increased pressure on the brain, high intestinal obstructions or foreign bodies. If your cat is behaving normally and appears healthy but vomits once a week, this is considered normal and nothing to worry about. Because of the complexity of the vomiting sign, cats with a problem should be taken to a veterinary surgeon for differential diagnosis.

Weakness

This usually accompanies depression or lethargy and is associated with a generalized infectious process. It can also be associated with poor diet, including vitamin A deficiencies, vitamin B-group deficiencies (particularly thiamine), worm burdens, and weaknesses of the hind legs, including tick paralysis, snake bite, abscesses and infectious processes of the hindquarters.

Weight Loss

The average adult cat weighs about 4 kilograms. It is difficult to assess weight loss if the diet varies, if the animal is overweight to begin with or if previous weight records are unavailable. The two major considerations in weight loss are changes in food consumption and evidence of a disorder of gastrointestinal functions, such as vomiting or diarrhea. The magnitude of the weight loss and the time in which it has taken place are important.
Loss of appetite can occur in such a wide variety of conditions that this sign in itself is not fruitful in reaching a diagnosis of the cause of weight loss. However, decreased absorption of food may occur in pancreatic or liver disease.
Weight loss may accompany general illness, such as feline panleucopaenia, hepatitis, kidney disease or cancer of the alimentary tract. Fever, itself a sign of disease, increases the metabolic requirements of the animal and may result in severe weight loss. Weight loss accompanied by increased urination suggests sugar diabetes, water diabetes or chronic kidney disease. Weight loss may frequently occur without a significant change in food consumption. This suggests hyperactivity or a psychosis, such as extreme nervousness created by a new environment or the introduction of competition, such as a new baby or a new pet into the household.
Weight loss sometimes occurs because of underfeeding. The animal may be receiving large quantities of food but the caloric density of the food and total calories may not be enough to fulfill the animal’s need. An animal’s caloric requirements fluctuate with its activities, the environment. body temperature, environmental and emotional stress and specific conditions such as pregnancy. Diagnosing the cause of weight loss demands a careful investigation of the animal’s diet, how much the animal is fed, how much it eats, its environment and its general health.
The common causes of weight loss in cats are diarrhea, vomiting and kidney disease—the latter usually occurs in the older animal and is accompanied by the cat drinking excessive amounts of water. Parasites such as roundworms, lungworms and tapeworms also cause weight loss..

Many people do get bitten, some even fatally, by dogs which have not been taught to behave properly. Children are particularly at risk, and can be scarred for life from a serious encounter. In Britain alone, it has been calculated that about 200,000 people may be bitten by dogs each year. Even more alarming is that over a third of the victims are not directly touching :he dog in any way at the time of the attack, according to US studies.
A second major area of concern are the dogs which stray from home, or run off when they are being exercised and cause road accidents. A detailed study revealed that in Britain approximately 1,600 accidents caused by dogs result in human injury, with about 17 people dying each year as a direct consequence of such incidents.

Most of these accidents occur in urban areas, but in the countryside untrained dogs can be equally dangerous. They may kill 10,000 domestic animals, ranging from poultry and sheep to cattle and horses, each year. Some of these dogs will be strays, abandoned by their owners because of difficulties with them in the home. Since three out of every four owners report behavioral problems with their dogs at some stage, it is clear that probably most strays are discarded for this reason, rather than because of other factors such as family break-ups or emigration.

The law in most countries places clear responsibilities on dog owners to ensure that their pets are properly trained, and not a menace to other people or animals. Civil claims for damages are not uncommon, and in the case of a serious road accident caused by a dog, the damages awarded can be very high.

It is always advisable to take out a public liability policy on your pet, as protection if you are ever involved in a dispute of this type. Specialist animal insurance companies usually offer such cover at little cost, either separately or built into a health protection policy for your pet, or it may even be incorporated into your household insurance. Ask an insurance broker for details, or look for advertisements in the canine press. You should make sure that you are adequately covered from the start, because the likelihood of a dog running away from home is probably greatest during the first few months of ownership.

Apart from the risk of causing injury, dogs also need to be trained for social purposes. No one likes streets covered in dog excrement, or being bowled over by a powerful dog pulling on its leash. Within the home environment too, training is important to prevent damage to furniture and soiling of carpets, for example.

Some dogs have a stronger territorial sense than others. Should you fail to appreciate this, and simply ignore them, there is a real likelihood that you could be bitten.

Always approach any stray dog with caution — it might be injured and could resent your attention. In areas where rabies occurs, there is the added risk that it could be rabid, and might inflict a deadly bite.

Tropical Fish

The tropical fish are kept in temperatures of about 25°C. They tend to be more expensive to buy than cold water fish and are therefore usually kept in better aquariums (which have such equipment as aerators) and often by enthusiasts prepared to give that extra attention that ensures survival If a problem begins in the aquarium, the Tetras will be first to show signs.
Tropical fish tend generally to be less susceptible to build up of ammonia fish. and nitrites—but this could be that they tend to live in better aquariums.

Marine Fish

Marine fish are kept at varying temperatures depending on their origin. Some marine fish are from tropical areas of the world, while others are from temperate zones and will be kept at lower temperatures. It is safest to ask the dealer for the most suitable temperature for specific fish. The seawater that the fish are kept in can be natural or synthetic. For those who live close to the ocean and want to use it, collect where the water is clear. Always use a non-toxic, non-corrosive vessel and store the water for six weeks in the dark before using. Always have a reserve of water in case of emergency. Artificial seawater mixes are available commercially – follow the instructions carefully.
Marine fish are very sensitive to nitrite and copper levels. The density of marine fish should be of the order of 1 centimeter of fish length to 10 liters of tank volume. This is much lower than for freshwater fish. The hobbyist should consider gaining aquarium experience with freshwater fish before acquiring a marine aquarium, as marine fish are very expensive and mistakes will be costly.

Some Popular Saltwater Fish and Creatures

• Anemones
• Banded Coral Shrimp
• Batfish
• Blacktail Dascyllus
• Cherub Fish
• Copperband Butterfly
• Cubbyu – Beautiful body markings and rich overall coloration on this marine fish make it an aquarium favorite.
• Comet Fish
• Fantail Fish
• Black Moor Fish
• Calico Fish
• Shubunkin
• Threadfin Butterflyfish – this coral fish is a marine fish.
• Fire Clownfish – a marine fish.
• Fantail Goldfish- is a common freshwater goldfish.
• French Angelfish
• Korean Angelfish
• Lionfish
• Moorish Idol
• Queen Angelfish
• Royal Gramma
• Seahorse
• Squirrelfish
• Yellowhead Jawfish
• Yellow Tang Fish
• Yellowtail Wrasse
• White Sea Anemone

A well-trained dog is a delightful companion and an intelligent member of the family. Training is a rewarding occupation requiring patience and kindness, which will bring you closer to your dog.
Puppies have short memories and must learn by repetition. In the early ages aim for short daily training sessions with the minimum of distraction and preferably just before feed time. Encourage the puppy when it has done well; give the occasional titbit, always a word of praise and a pat. Never smack the dog with your hand for punishment, other than on the rump, and never use any physical force on its nose—this is its most sensitive part and the dog’s sense of smell can easily be impaired.
If the puppy must be punished, catch it in the act of wrongdoing; otherwise it will not know what it has done wrong. Dogs understand differences in the tone of your voice, so make your initial reprimand by deepening the tone of your voice and speaking severely. If this does not work after repeated attempts, use a folded piece of newspaper to smack the animal; this makes a lot of noise, indicates to the dog that it is being punished but does not hurt it physically. Do not expect too much -too soon-, many pups will not learn commands until ‘they are five or six months old and. -remain mischievous and destructive until then.. The same basic principles of reward and punishment apply to all forms of training.

House Training

From the time it is weaned a puppy can be taught to be clean and to go to a tray containing dirt, sand or ashes to empty its bladder and bowel. Put it on the tray several times a day, and always after it has been fed, and praise any action. It will quickly learn to go there regularly.
As the puppy grows older, put it outside five or six times a day, especially first thing in the morning and last thing at night, as well as immediately after eating. If possible, select a spot in the garden and take the puppy there regularly, as the odor emanating from its toilet will stimulate its desire to pass urine or feces. If possible, stay with the puppy until it has performed and then praise it; it will soon learn what is expected.
Older puppies or dogs that have not previously been trained are sometimes more difficult. They require careful watching and frequent putting out. If they misbehave in the house, scold them with words.
If a trained dog has an accident in the house it usually means the dog has a problem. It may be an antisocial jealousy behavior pattern, it may indicate an infection of the bladder, or in older dogs it can be urinary incontinence. Never rub your dog’s nose in the mess when it has made a mistake; take it to the spot, hold it near and say ‘no’ or ‘bad dog’ several times in your scolding voice, then put the dog straight outside for some time as an indication of punishment.